Design and topology/shape structural optimisation for additively manufactured cold sprayed components

Integrating advanced structural optimisation, such as topology optimisation (TO), with additive manufacturing (AM) allows design and fabrication of extremely efficient and effective components. Such integration is challenging because characteristics can vary from process to process. In this paper, designing and optimising a part for the cold spray AM process is demonstrated. Cold spray process characteristics and constraints are enforced throughout. The analysis shows a tradeoff between stress and mass, but the combined process delivers a structure at much lower stress (up to 3X reduction in peak stress in a case study) with the capability to be much lighter than the original part (case study: 20% reduction in weight). The general approach to specifying design guidelines, interpreting TO results, and applying other structural optimisation methods is directly applicable to many AM processes – and especially other spray deposition techniques – in addition to cold spray.     

Integrated aggregate supply chain planning using memetic algorithm – A performance analysis case study

This paper aims to examine how a complex supply chain yields cost reduction benefits through the global integration of production and distribution decisions. The research is motivated by a complex real world supply chain planning problem facing a large automotive company. A mixed-integer nonlinear production-distribution planning model is solved using a customised memetic algorithm. The performance and effectiveness of the developed model and solution approach in achieving the global optimisation is investigated through experiments comparing the numerical results from the proposed integrated approach with those of a typical non-integrated (hierarchical) production–distribution optimisation.     

Topology design for composite components of minimum weight

This work presents a new philosophy for optimisation of composite structures in relation to lightweight design. It is based on Michell optimum lay-out theory, which uses orthogonal mesh structures disposed in the direction of principal stress trajectories, associated with an absolutely uniform distribution of stress in the fibres. The fibres in the composite component micro structure are disposed orthogonally like the minimum weight Michell structures, with voids filled with resin. This is the same mechanical principle which governs the optimisation of natural composites such as bones, horn, trees etc. Based on this natural rule, a procedure to find the optimum topology for the design of optimum composite mechanical components has been developed. A CAD-CAE software system based on finite element analysis using ABAQUS produces interactively on a screen the structure of optimum topology where the optimum fibre arrangement will be made.     

Optimum Patch Repair Shapes for Cracked Members

In the present paper the problem of finding the optimal patch repair shape in a cracked structural component with respect to a given objective function, is investigated by using a biological-based procedure known as Genetic Algorithm (GA) in conjunction with a penalty constraint. The search for an optimal patch shape, which can be regarded also as an optimal topology problem, is obtained by determining the corresponding patch’s continuous material’s density distribution: the design optimisation considered in the present study takes into account the minimisation of some mechanical desired performance of the structure’s while keeping constant the total available patched area (optimal constrained problem). The proposed optimisation model is implemented in a F.E. code and some numerical simulations are performed in order to assess its reliability in optimal topology design of patch repairs, applied to mode I cracked members, with respect to some expected performances. For the considered problems, the optimisation algorithm allows a quite important improvement (in reducing the stress intensity factor) with respect to cracked components repaired with simple shape (i.e. rectangular) bonded patches.     

Cause of failure and optimization of a V-belt pulley considering fatigue life uncertainty in automotive applications

High accuracy of dimensions and strength in design requirements are required to produce reliable automotive components with consistent strength distribution. For example, a V-belt pulley is widely used to transmit power between rotational mechanical elements. However, due to defects from the manufacturing process and heterogeneity of materials, different kinds of failure damage may occur in pulleys of identical shape and material. Common applications in the automotive industry include crankshafts, water pumps, air-conditioner compressors and power steering pumps. Although the shape and the usage of pulleys are very simple, evaluating the pulley design is difficult because the loading conditions and installation environment are complicated. This paper focuses on the clutch pulley in the A/C compressor system of automotives and cause of failure was investigated. The applied stress distribution of the pulley under high-tension and torque was obtained by using finite element analysis (FEA) and based on theses results, the life of the pulley with variation in fatigue strength was estimated with a durability analysis simulator. The results for failure probabilities of 50% and 1% were compared with the fatigue life. Incidentally, the purpose of this study was to optimize the fatigue life of vehicle components from the stochastic point of view. The fatigue life was obtained by an approximation function, and the optimum design was verified by fatigue tests considering durability and validity. The design optimization of a V-belt pulley was performed using an approximation function, which improved the fatigue life. A new shape optimization procedure was presented to improve the fatigue life of the pulley in automotive applications and the shape control concept was introduced to reduce the shape design variables. Design of experiment (DOE) was employed to evaluate the design sensitivity of fatigue life with respect to shape design variables.     

基于惯性释放多工况拓扑优化泡沫缓冲包装结构

目的 在跌落冲击工况下,对风管机包装泡沫进行优化设计,得到缓冲性能可靠的泡沫优化方案,以降低包装成本.方法 通过OptiStruct与LS-DYNA联合仿真,建立带有包装的风管机整机有限元模型,并通过跌落实验验证有限元模型的准确性.获取所有工况泡沫载荷响应;其次通过OptiStruct开展拓扑优化,同时施加多工况载荷,并以惯性释放法作为边界条件,最后得到满足所有跌落工况要求的轻量化优化方案.结果 新泡沫方案较原方案质量减少了30％,各跌落实验工况加速度峰值均有所下降,产品跌落实验合格;仿真与实验加速度峰值相似度达到90％以上,泡沫失效位置一致.结论 结构拓扑优化方法可以在保证包装结构可靠性的前提下,降低包装成本.     

Failure analysis of a nose landing gear fork

This paper presents a detailed analysis of a nose landing gear failure. The developed study comes following an accident occurred in which the nose of the landing gear's fork of a light aircraft failed during landing. According to Federal Aviation Administration, in average, 55% of aircraft failures occur during takeoff and landing.In order to determine the causes of the accident, a material analysis was performed, followed by a detailed study of the fracture's surface both visually and using optical and scanning electron microscopies. It was observed that fatigue cracks developed in the vicinity of the bolted holes, which work as supporting connections, on the topside of the nose fork and, as such, it can be concluded that the referred area was subjected to cyclic stresses originating and propagating cracks in the material. This cracking is characteristic of the existence of stress concentration areas. Identified the crack initiation zone with ratcheting and beach marks near the origin of the crack, combined with the fact that the nose wheel fork is subject to cyclic loading, leads to the conclusion that the component failed due to fatigue.Finite element analyses were also performed on the nose fork taking into account service conditions in order to assess the structural integrity of the component. During the analysis it was observed that the critical areas are located in the vicinity of the connecting holes, as it was observed in the fracture surface analysis. The assembly behavior in the presence of four straight cracks, originating from the fork holes, was also studied using the stress intensity factors, calculated using the contour integral method.     

凹凸棱设计对航空运输箱抗冲击性能的影响

目的 针对一种新型的航空运输箱体,研究在箱体跌落时,凹凸棱耦合结构中凸棱高度和凸棱角度对箱体最大变形量的影响,对箱体进行模态分析和随机振动分析,探究在空运状态下箱体的变形情况.方法 采用CATIA建立航空运输箱体设计的实体三维模型,参考多种机型货舱门高度,利用有限元软件Ansys进行箱体在搬运过程中从货舱门高度跌落的分析,对运输箱进行模态分析,并探究在空运过程中随机振动时的最大变形和等效应力,研究在3种面跌落、3种棱跌落、1种角跌落共计7种跌落工况情况下箱体的最大总变形量和受到的等效应力,并利用Matlab软件建立插值曲面,寻找最优设计.结果 所有设计方案中,箱体受到的最大等效应力均不会造成材料的破坏,在凸棱高度为20 mm,凸棱角度为0°时,箱体的平均最大总变形量最小.结论 确定了此种空运箱体在空运过程中不会产生大变形,且最大变形量小于无凸棱设计箱体,可作为最优设计方案投入后续制造与使用.     

离合器拨叉失效分析

汽车离合器拨叉在使用期内发生断裂。采用扫描电镜、能谱仪以及化学分析等方法对离合器拨叉进行了分析。结果表明,离合器拨叉断裂是疲劳断裂。铸造缺陷、杂质元素偏聚和夹杂物的存在是形成早期裂纹源的原因。在工作应力作用下,裂纹不断扩展,最后导致拨叉完全开裂失效。     

汽车座椅骨架构件布局设计方法

传统的汽车座椅骨架构件布局依靠经验设计,不仅设计效率低,而且得不到性价比最优的结构.以某轿车后排座椅板管结构骨架为研究对象,基于结构拓扑优化设计技术,提出了座椅骨架构件布局设计方法.首先,根据骨架外观形状及尺寸要求,确定设计区域,并根据实际的安全带加载工况,建立设计模型;然后,以结构静刚度最大为优化目标,采用变密度法对结构进行拓扑优化设计,并根据拓扑优化结果,提出2种不同的布局方案;最后,根据有限元分析结果确定最终的设计方案,并对优化设计结果进行行李箱后撞的安全性分析.研究结果表明,在骨架质量下降1.92%的情况下,整体静态刚度提高19.0%,并满足动态碰撞的安全性要求.采用所提出的设计方法,可以得到最优座椅骨架构件布局结构.     

A review of synthesis methods for additive manufacturing

With the design freedoms afforded by additive manufacturing (AM) processes, an increasing interest in shape synthesis methods has led to a variety of advances in topology optimisation methods and associated synthesis technologies. In this paper, we identify research issues related to the application of AM to shape synthesis methods, review recent advances in topology optimisation, and outline a vision for future synthesis capabilities.     

High performance automotive and railway components made from novel competitive aluminium composites

Abstract

The traditional materials encounter difficulties to comply with all the properties required by new components under service conditions. The automotive and the railway industries require low cost solutions to improve the final performance of components made from steel, cast iron, or even conventional aluminium alloys (e.g. clutch discs, brake discs, or pistons). Weight reduction, improvement in wear behaviour, high thermal conductivity, low coefficient of thermal expansion, and easy recycling are sought, among other characteristics, in order to obtain more efficient products leading to a reduction of pollutant emissions. The range of materials that can meet these requirements is presently very narrow and their final price is more expensive (e.g. aluminium matrix composites) than currently used materials. In this paper a new low cost metal matrix composite that has been used to produce pistons, clutch discs, and train brake discs is presented.     

Multi-objective optimisation of composite aerospace structures

This paper describes a procedure for optimising both cost and weight using the cost parameter, ΔC/ΔW, as a primary design driver. The theory behind the algorithms involving the cost parameter will be stated. A comparison between the Pareto method, which is the standard approach for multi-objective optimisation, and this new innovative approach will be made on a simplified aileron structure. Results from the optimisation applied to a Krueger flap will also be presented.     

Structural optimisation of random discontinuous fibre composites: Part 2 – Case study

This is the second paper in a two part series presenting the development of a stiffness optimisation algorithm to intelligently optimise the fibre architecture of discontinuous fibre composites. A Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) strategy is used to select parameters associated with the fibre architecture, to produce components that satisfy stiffness, cost and mass criteria.The model has been successfully demonstrated using an automotive spare wheel well geometry, which shows that a highly optimised discontinuous fibre composite solution can compete against a continuous fabric counterpart in terms of specific stiffness, whilst presenting an opportunity for significant cost reduction. This could potentially lead to the application of composite materials into new areas where cost has previously been prohibitive.     

Design and experimental validation of self-supporting topologies for additive manufacturing

ABSTRACT

Incorporating additive manufacturing (AM) constraints in topology optimisation can lead to performance optimality while ensuring manufacturability of designs. Numerical techniques have been previously proposed to obtain support-free designs in AM, however, few works have verified the manufacturability of their solutions. Physical verification of manufacturability becomes more critical recalling that the conventional density-based topology optimisation methods will inevitably require post-processing to smooth the boundaries before sending the results to a 3D printer. This paper presents the smooth design of self-supporting topologies using the combination of a new Solid Isotropic Microstructure with Penalisation method (SIMP) developed based on elemental volume fractions and an existing AM filter. Manufacturability of selected simulation results are verified with Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology. It is illustrated that the proposed method is able to generate convergent self-supporting topologies which are printable using FDM.     

Multi-step blended stacking sequence design of panel assemblies with buckling constraints

In this paper, we propose a multi-step framework for design of composite panel assemblies and subsequent blending of the designs to ensure laminate continuity across multi-panel configurations. Multilevel optimisation is frequently used for solving complex optimisation problems. In composite design this approach leads to stacking sequence mismatch among adjacent structural components which is generally referred to as blending problem. To overcome stacking sequence mismatch, a guide-based genetic algorithm (GA) is used which in essence forces the design to be completely blended at any step in the design process. A serious drawback of guide based approach is that it necessitates repeated analysis of the entire structure within the GA iterations. A multi-step framework is proposed where the structure is first optimised using panel thickness and lamination parameters as continuous design variables. The continuous optimisation is performed using a successive convex approximation scheme. In the second step, discrete blended stacking sequences are obtained using a guide-based genetic algorithm. The fitness function in the guide-based GA is evaluated using convex approximations of the response. In this fashion, the cost of evaluating structural response within the GA optimisation is eliminated. The proposed framework is demonstrated via design of an eighteen panel horseshoe configuration, where each panel is optimised individually subject to a local buckling constraint. Numerical results indicate that the present algorithm is capable of producing near-optimal fully blended designs at a small fraction of the computational cost of traditional blending algorithms.     

Designing cutouts for optimum residual strength in plane structural elements

The paper presents a new approach for shape optimisation of structures with residual strength as the design objective. It must be emphasized that flaws are inevitably present in most structures, and hence the influence of cracks on optimised shapes needs to be investigated. Numerical simulation of cracks using the finite element method requires a very fine mesh to model the singularity at crack tip. This makes fracture calculations computationally intensive. Furthermore, for a damage tolerance based optimisation numerous cracks are to be considered along the structural boundary, and fracture analysis needs to be repeated for each crack at every iteration, thus making the whole process extremely computationally expensive for practical purpose. Moreover, the lack of information concerning crack size, orientation, and location makes the formulation of the optimisation problem difficult. As a result, little attention has been paid to date to consider fracture parameters in the optimisation objective. To address this, the paper presents a methodology for the shape optimisation of structures with strength and durability as the design objectives. In particular, the damage tolerance optimisation is illustrated via the problem of optimal design of a ‘cutout in a rectangular block under biaxial loading’. A parametric shape representation has been used to describe the problem geometry. Damage tolerance based optimisation was performed using nonlinear programming algorithms, and NE-NASTRAN was used for finite element analysis. The first order mathematical programming algorithms, viz: the Broydon–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (BFGS) and the Fletcher–Reeves (Conjugate Direction) Methods were evaluated as the potential algorithms for optimising the residual strength in the presence of flaws. Another recently developed Sequential Unconstrained Minimisation Technique (SUMT), based on an exterior penalty function method and especially suited for large problems, was also investigated for fracture based optimisation. The effects of the orientation and the number of boundary cracks on the optimal solutions were also studied. It has been shown that the residual strength optimised shapes can be different from the corresponding and commonly adopted stress optimised solution. This emphasises the need to explicitly consider residual strength as the design objective. In all cases a significant reduction in the maximum stress intensity factor was achieved with the generation of a ‘near’ uniform fracture critical surface. The design space near the optimal region was found to be relatively flat. This is beneficial as a significant structural performance enhancement is important rather than precise identification of the local/global optimum solution. The optimal solutions obtained using the nonlinear programming algorithms were compared against those obtained in the literature using a heuristic optimisation method (Biological algorithm). The results obtained using the two methods, employing inherently different (gradient-based and gradient-less) algorithms, were found to agree very well.     

Automotive reliability inference based on past data and technical knowledge

The constantly increasing market requirements of high quality vehicles ask for the automotive manufacturers to carry out—before starting mass production—reliability demonstration tests on new products. However, due to cost and time limitation, a small number of copies of the new product are available for testing, so that, when the classical approach is used, a very low level of confidence in reliability estimation results in. In this paper, a Bayes procedure is proposed for making inference on the reliability of a new upgraded version of a mechanical component, by using both failure data relative to a previous version of the component and prior information on the effectiveness of design modifications introduced in the new version. The proposed procedure is then applied to a case study and its feasibility in supporting reliability estimation is illustrated.     

Robust topology optimization for cellular composites with hybrid uncertainties

This paper will develop a new robust topology optimization method for the concurrent design of cellular composites with an array of identical microstructures subject to random‐interval hybrid uncertainties. A concurrent topology optimization framework is formulated to optimize both the composite macrostructure and the material microstructure. The robust objective function is defined based on the interval mean and interval variance of the corresponding objective function. A new uncertain propagation approach, termed as a hybrid univariate dimension reduction method, is proposed to estimate the interval mean and variance. The sensitivity information of the robust objective function can be obtained after the uncertainty analysis. Several numerical examples are used to validate the effectiveness of the proposed robust topology optimization method.     

An integrated design methodology for components produced by laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process

Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is an additive manufacturing (AM) process that allows to build full dense metal complex part. However, despite the obvious benefits of L-PBF process, it is affected by specific technological drawbacks and it suffers from issues regarding design support tools. In order to fully exploit the advantages of L-PBF, it is necessary to know the technological constraints, such as material availability and the need to minimise the support structures. In this paper, an integrated design procedure that involves topology optimisation, design for laser powder bed fusion rules and finishing requirements is presented in order to define practical guidelines for successful AM of metal parts. The procedure is tested using a case study to prove the effectiveness of the proposed approach.