Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric.

Time perspective (TP), a fundamental dimension in the construction of psychological time, emerges from cognitive processes partitioning human experience into past, present, and future temporal frames. The authors' research program proposes that TP is a pervasive and powerful yet largely unrecognized influence on much human behavior. Although TP variations are learned and modified by a variety of personal, social, and institutional influences, TP also functions as an individual-differences variable. Reported is a new measure assessing personal variations in TP profiles and specific TP "biases." The 5 factors of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory were established through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrate acceptable internal and test-retest reliability. Convergent, divergent, discriminant, and predictive validity are shown by correlational and experimental research supplemented by case studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analysis of the association between marital relationships and health problems: An interactional perspective.

Reviews the evidence for a relationship between 3 types of marital variables (marital status, marital adjustment, and marital interaction) and health problems (etiology, course/outcome/treatment) as well as the effect that health problems have on marriage. The mechanisms responsible for these associations also are evaluated. The evidence suggests that marital variables affect health status but that the effect is indirect and nonspecific. The major explanatory model, the stress/social support hypothesis, has provided a broad conceptual framework rather than testable hypotheses. The results of the review suggest, however, that sufficient evidence exists for researchers to focus on exploring specific explanations. A hypothetical model is presented that includes interpersonal, intrapersonal, psychological, and physiological variables. This model is intended as a blueprint for exploration as well as a summary of available evidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The power of suggestion: another examination of misattribution and insomnia

Impairment of mucous transport is considered significant to the postoperative development of atelectasis, but the association has never beed demonstrated in humans. Tantalum powder, which adheres to airway mucus, can be used to study mucociliary transport. The postoperative clearance of insufflated tantalum powder (mean diameter, 2.5 mum) was investigated in 25 patients. Eighteen patients underwent intra-abdominal vascular surgery and 7 undersent lower-extremity orthopedic procedures. At the completion of surgery, tantalum was insufflated into both lungs of each patient to outline a representative sample of airways from the trachea to the small bronchi. Tantalum clearance was evaluated from serial radiographs obtained immediately after insufflation, at approximately 6, 18, 26, and 48 hours later, and thereafter whenever appropriate. In the 7 orthopedic patients, clearance of tantalum was progressive and usually complete within 48 hours. Atelectasis did not occur in this group. In 14 of the 18 patients who had abdominal surgery, mucociliary clearance was markedly abnormal in that tantalum was retained for up to 6 days. Pooling of tantalum-labeled mucus occurred in dependent bronchi in 16 of these 18 patients. Pooling preceded and always accompanied radiographically visible atelectasis. Lobar atelectasis occurred in 6 patients and segmental atelectasis in 8. Tantalum-labeled mucus moved peripherally in atelectatic lobes or segments and was retained in these bronchi until re-expansion took place. Thus, impaired ciliary function and mucous transport are associated with and implicated in postoperative pulmonary atelectasis.     

Conflict in close relationships: An attachment perspective.

This study investigated how perceptions of current dating partners and relationships change after people with different attachment orientations attempt to resolve a problem in their relationship. Dating couples were videotaped while they tried to resolve either a major or a minor problem. Confirming predictions from attachment theory, men and women who had a more ambivalent orientation perceived their partner and relationship in relatively less positive terms after discussing a major problem. Observer ratings revealed that more ambivalent women who tried to resolve a major problem displayed particularly strong stress and anxiety and engaged in more negative behaviors. Conversely, men with a more avoidant orientation were rated as less warm and supportive, especially if they discussed a major problem. These results are discussed in terms of how highly ambivalent and highly avoidant people differentially perceive and respond to distressing events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working-memory capacity as long-term memory activation: An individual-differences approach.

One explanation of the correlation often observed between working-memory span scores and reading comprehension is that individuals differ in level of activation available for long-term memory units. Two experiments used the fan manipulation to test this idea. In Exp 1, high- and low-working-memory Ss learned a set of unrelated sentences varying in the number of shared concepts (fans) and then performed speeded recognition for those sentences. Low-working-memory Ss showed a larger increase in recognition time as fan increased. When the slope of the fan effect was partialled out of the relationship between working-memory span and verbal abilities, the relationship was reduced to nonsignificance. In Exp 2, Ss learned thematically related sentences that varied in fan. Low-span Ss showed the positive fan effect typically found with thematically unrelated sentences, whereas high-span Ss showed a negative fan effect. The results are discussed in terms of a general capacity theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The nature of adult twin relationships: An attachment-theoretical perspective.

Twin relationships have been hailed as one of the most unique and intimate kinds of relationships. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of empirical research that addresses the interpersonal nature of twin relationships. In this article, the authors argue that attachment theory may provide a useful framework for understanding the nature of twin relationships. The authors present data indicating that (a) twins are more likely than nontwin siblings to use their sibling as an attachment figure; (b) the developmental course of twin attachment differs from that of other attachments; and (c) certain factors, such as genetic relatedness, empathy, including the other in the self, and shared experiences, may impact the extent to which twins use one another as attachment figures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement.

Misattributions people make about their own affective reactions can be used to measure attitudes implicitly. Combining the logic of projective tests with advances in priming research, the affect misattribution procedure (AMP) was sensitive to normatively favorable and unfavorable evaluations (Experiments 1-4), and the misattribution effect was strong at both fast and slow presentation rates (Experiments 3 and 4). Providing further evidence of validity, the AMP was strongly related to individual differences in self-reported political attitudes and voting intentions (Experiment 5). In the socially sensitive domain of racial attitudes, the AMP showed in-group bias for Black and White participants. AMP performance correlated with explicit racial attitudes, a relationship that was moderated by motivations to control prejudice (Experiment 6). Across studies, the task was unaffected by direct warnings to avoid bias. Advantages of the AMP include large effect sizes, high reliability, ease of use, and resistance to correction attempts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An expectancy-attribution model of the effects of placebos.

Distinguishes between primary assessments, which measure the direct effects of expectancies associated with the placebo, and secondary assessments, which measure S's inferences about underlying dispositions that are not believed to be directly affected by the placebo (inductive effects). Placebos whose alleged impact will counteract the recipient's symptoms (counteractive expectancies) are distinguished from placebos whose alleged effects will parallel the recipient's symptoms (parallel expectancies). Research findings are reviewed and classified into 1 of 4 cells produced by a combination of these 2 factors. Standard placebo effects (changes in the recipient's condition in accordance with the placebo's alleged impact) were found to be most common on primary assessments of counteractive expectancies placebos; reverse inductive effects (altered inferences about an underlying disposition, in the direction opposite to the placebo's alleged impact) were most common on secondary assessments of parallel expectancies placebos. Psychological processes that underlie these effects and implications for clinical practice are considered. (94 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships.

On the basis of postulates derived from socioemotional selectivity theory, the authors explored the extent to which future time perspective (FTP) is related to social motivation, and to the composition and perceived quality of personal networks. Four hundred eighty German participants with ages ranging from 20 to 90 yrs took part in the study. In 2 card-sort tasks, participants indicated their partner preference and goal priority. Participants also completed questionnaires on personal networks and social satisfaction. Older people, as a group, perceived their future time as more limited than younger people. Individuals who perceived future time as being limited prioritized emotionally meaningful goals, whereas individuals who perceived their futures as open-ended prioritized instrumental or knowledge-related goals. Priority of goal domains was found to be differently associated with the size, composition, and perceived quality of personal networks depending on FTP. Prioritizing emotion-regulatory goals was associated with greater social satisfaction and less perceived strain with others when participants perceived their future as limited. Findings underscore the importance of FTP in the self-regulation of social relationships and the subjective experience associated with them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An individual-differences interpretation of the conflicting predictions generated by equity and expectancy theory.

The predictions and findings engendered by J. S. Adams's (1965) theory of equity are contrary to hypotheses deducible from expectancy theory for conditions of piece-rate overpayment. Suggested as the origin of the opposite predictions of equity theory and expectancy theory are the philosophical views of altruism and hedonism, respectively. In order to test the hypothesis that degree of moral development is a moderator of the equity phenomenon, 40 undergraduates were hired for a part-time job and assigned to simulated employment conditions. Support was obtained for anticipated differences in relationships such that increases in individual moral maturity were associated with conformity to equity theory's performance predictions for an overpayment condition (i.e., moral maturity was more inversely related to quantity of performance and most positively related to quality of performance in an overpayment condition relative to an equitable payment condition). Results support the hypothesis. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of caregiving in adult intimate relationships: An attachment theoretical perspective.

Romantic couples (N?=?194) participated in an investigation of caregiving processes in adulthood. In Phase 1, couple members completed questionnaires designed to identify attachment style differences in caregiving behavior and to explore the underlying (personal and relationship) mechanisms that lead people with different attachment styles to be effective or ineffective caregivers. Results revealed that social support knowledge, prosocial orientation, interdependence, trust, and egoistic motivation mediated the link between attachment style and caregiving. In Phase 2, responsive caregiving was assessed behaviorally by exposing one member of the couple to a stressful laboratory situation and experimentally manipulating his or her need for support. Results revealed that attachment style and mediating mechanisms identified in Phase 1 also predicted observable support behavior in a specific episode in which a partner had a clear need for support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Passionate love and the misattribution of arousal.

Two studies provide evidence that misattribution of arousal facilitates romantic attraction. In Exp I, arousal of 54 male undergraduates was manipulated through exercise. Arousal Ss liked an attractive female confederate more and an unattractive female less than did controls. In Exp II, arousal of 66 Ss was manipulated in a positive (comedy tape) or negative (mutilation tape) way; other Ss heard a nonarousing tape (textbook excerpt). Results replicate the interaction found in Exp I: Valence of initial arousal did not affect attraction to the confederate. Salience of plausible labels for arousal is hypothesized to mediate the misattribution effect. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Source amnesia, misattribution, and the power of unconscious perceptions and memories.

A review of the empirical literature on implicit (i.e., unconscious) perception and memory reveals that S. Freud's (1910/1955, 1914/1956) hypotheses in this area were remarkably prescient in some respects. The implications of experimental research for psychodynamic models of symptom formation, transference analysis, and the curative components of insight-oriented therapy are discussed. Changes in terminology that can help bridge the gap between cognitive science and psychodynamics are outlined, and the heuristic value of strengthening existing connections between these disciplines is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationships between defenses and experiences of depression: An exploratory study.

This study examined the relationships between defenses and depressive experiences. Two questionnaires, in counterbalanced order, were administered to a community sample of 205 adults: the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; S. Blatt, J. D'Afflitti, & D. Quinlan 1976, 1979) and the Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI; D. Ihilevich & G. C. Gleser, 1986). Although turning against self related significantly to both depressive experiences of dependency, especially the less mature neediness in comparison with the more mature connectedness, and self-criticism, other types of defenses, as measured by the DMI, differentiated between interpersonal and self-critical experiences of depression. Results are discussed from psychodynamic and developmental perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A safe haven: An attachment theory perspective on support seeking and caregiving in intimate relationships.

This study used an attachment theoretical framework to investigate support-seeking and caregiving processes in intimate relationships. Dating couples (N?=?93) were videotaped while one member of the couple (support seeker) disclosed a personal problem to his or her partner (caregiver). Results indicated that when support seekers rated their problem as more stressful, they engaged in more direct support-seeking behavior, which led their partners to respond with more helpful forms of caregiving. Responsive caregiving then led seekers to feel cared for and to experience improved mood. Evidence for individual differences was also obtained: Avoidant attachment predicted ineffective support seeking, and anxious attachment predicted poor caregiving. Finally, couples in better functioning relationships engaged in more supportive interactions, and participants' perceptions of their interaction were biased by relationship quality and attachment style. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonromantic, nonsexual posttherapy relationships between psychologists and former clients: An exploratory study of critical incidents.

The authors asked 320 psychologists to participate in a nonrandom, exploratory study by providing incidents of nonromantic, nonsexual relationships with former clients. In addition, these psychologists were asked to discuss whether they saw these relationships as ethically problematic. A total of 91 useable incidents (from a final sample size of 63 respondents) were sorted into eight relationships categories. The results of this study highlight several issues: (a) Psychologists are dealing with a variety of nonromantic, nonsexual relationships with former clients, (b) there is little consensus about the ethicality of these contracts, and (c) future revisions of the Ethics Code (American Psychological Association, 1992) may need to consider nonsexual and nonromantic relationships with former clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resolving interpersonal conflicts: An analysis of stylistic consistency.

In three experiments, we examined people's consistency in their styles of resolving interpersonal conflicts. In Experiment 1, 40 Yale undergraduates described recent significant interpersonal conflicts with a same-sex peer, an opposite-sex peer, and a parent, and their methods of resolving these conflicts. They then rated the extent to which each of seven styles of conflict resolution characterized their actual and ideal styles of conflict resolution. In Experiment 2, 40 Yale summer school subjects again described and rated their own methods for resolving recent significant interpersonal conflicts with a parent, a teacher, a roommate, and a romantic partner. They also rated styles of conflict resolution for hypothetical conflicts involving these same significant others. In Experiment 3, 40 Yale undergraduates rated actual and ideal styles of conflict resolution as they pertained to both sides of two real conflicts: one regarding a contract dispute between Yale University and Local 34, the union for clerical and technical workers, and the other between the United States and the Soviet Union over arms negotiations. Strong consistencies in styles of conflict resolution were observed within individuals across various interpersonal conflicts, and at the same time widespread differences were observed across individuals in preferred styles of conflict resolution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpretation of psychic conflict and adversarial relationships: A self-psychological perspective.

Transference, as described in conflict theory, and self object transference, as considered within self psychology, are represented in a changing figure and ground relationship. An emphasis on conflict and resistance analysis may structure analytic treatment along an adversarial dimension, with implications for self object and object-related transferences. The analytic approach to psychic conflict involves interpreting what the patient defensively needs to ward off. The approach to self-pathology is to interpret the self object functions that the patient needs for self-consolidation and self-maintenance. Accurate assessment of instances in treatment where psychic conflict is the predominant configuration requires a clinical theory that embraces multiple perspectives. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective.

The possibility that love and work in adulthood are functionally similar to attachment and exploration in infancy and early childhood was investigated. Key components of attachment theory were translated into terms appropriate to adult love and work. The translation centered on the 3 major types of infant attachment and exploration identified by M. D. S. Ainsworth et al (1978): secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relations between adult attachment type and work orientation are similar to attachment/exploration dynamics in infancy and early childhood, suggesting that the dynamics may be similar across the life span. Implications for research on the link between love and work are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of an attachment-theoretical approach to the study of adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)