论岩溶塌陷形成的致塌模式

岩溶塌陷是塌陷体受到的致塌力超过抗塌力而产生的,各种致塌力可以形成多种力学效应,构成不同的致塌模式。因此,塌陷的形成应该是多机制的。据对全国800多个塌陷点的研究,有重力致塌式、潜蚀致塌式、冲爆致塌式、真空吸蚀致塌式、振动致塌式、荷载致塌式、溶蚀致塌式、根蚀致塌式等八种基本的致塌模式。     

武汉市工程施工引发岩溶塌陷机理分析

文章对武汉市岩溶塌陷进行了全面梳理,主要对由工程施工引发的岩溶塌陷进行了归纳总结,按施工类型将其分为4大类,对其在不同地质条件下引发岩溶塌陷的成因机理、致塌模型进行举例分析,得出结论:钻探施工诱发的岩溶塌陷以岩层顶板破坏—垂直渗压致塌模式及崩解—土洞顶部破坏—加载致塌模式为主;桩基础施工以岩层顶板破坏—渗流液化致塌模式为主;抽排地下水诱发的岩溶塌陷为潜蚀-吸蚀致塌模式,荷载振动诱发的岩溶塌陷为潜蚀—振动—加载致塌模式。武汉市岩溶塌陷以钻探、桩基施工诱发为主,因其容易破坏岩土体结构、水动力条件,具有猛烈而快速的特点;抽取地下水影响范围较广,隐蔽、不易察觉;振动荷载只能作用于土洞形成后。      

昆明市岩溶塌陷发育特征和防治措施

昆明市是岩溶塌陷危害较重的城市之一.岩溶塌陷主要集中分布在翠湖一圆通山、金马寺等8个地段,已形成塌陷坑405个,发生时间主要在6-9月,该时段形成的塌陷占全年发生数的73%.岩溶塌陷多发育于地下岩溶发育、松散盖层厚度小于15m、地下水位埋深小于20m的地段.碳酸盐岩岩溶发育、松散盖层厚度较小和水动力条件(降水、地表水和地下水)是昆明市岩溶塌陷产生的必要条件,其中地下水的作用对岩溶塌陷的形成至关重要.昆明市岩溶塌陷机理主要有地下水位升降致塌、地表水下渗致塌和动荷载致塌3种类型.防治方法主要包括避让、合理开采地下水的预防措施和防渗封闭、结构物跨越及地下加固处理的工程措施.      

歌乐山地区隧道工程诱发的岩溶塌陷发育规律与形成条件

歌乐山地区近年来因密集修建隧道工程诱发大量岩溶塌陷,然而对岩溶塌陷的分布、规模、成因和演化等尚缺乏系统性总结。通过资料整理、钻井资料分析、监测资料解译等手段,对歌乐山地区岩溶塌陷发育规律和形成条件进行了系统性分析,对致塌成因机理和演化过程进行了深入探讨,得出以下结论：岩溶塌陷多组群式发育在隧址区内第四系粉质黏土覆盖的宽阔岩溶洼地、沟槽或构造裂隙密集区;多级岩溶洞缝系统为岩溶塌陷的形成提供了良好的空间发育条件,致塌力主要来自隧道工程建设引发的地下水动力条件变化;岩溶塌陷主要成因机理是隧道工程建设改变局部地下水环境,在重建过程中产生的多效应致塌作用诱发易塌地质结构塌陷;岩溶塌陷发育演化包括孕育、形成、稳定3个时期。孕育期,隧道工程建设初步揭露富水岩溶缝洞系统,表层缝洞带内形成土体运移、坍塌的空间,覆盖层局部发生变形、脱落。形成期,隧道工程建设与运营通常采取引水排放措施,在引发的多效应致塌作用下岩溶塌陷最终形成。稳定期,隧道工程运营至一定阶段后,地下水环境逐渐趋于新的动态平衡,既有岩溶塌陷逐渐稳定,塌陷群不再向外扩展。研究结果可作为岩溶塌陷监测预警、生态修复和隧道规划等工作的参考依据。     

我国岩溶塌陷研究综述

随经济的不断发展,对岩溶区资源的开发日益增强,由此引发的岩溶塌陷问题也日趋频繁、严重,已成为岩溶区可持续发展的一大障碍,有效减轻其造成的危害势在必行。文章根据近年来国内外岩溶塌陷的研究现状及发展,概述了岩溶塌陷的三大形成条件:一定发育程度的岩溶、上覆盖层、岩溶地下水系统;以及中国岩溶塌陷的时空分布规律,分别举例例证了它的几种成因机制,如重力致塌、潜蚀致塌等。由于其突发性及危害性,有必要对岩溶塌陷的预测防治进行深入研究,做到防灾减灾。基于此,总结了中国岩溶塌陷的监测预报和安全评价等方面的新方法和措施等。针对塌陷的形成条件、塌陷现象或其危情的存在状况及其危害性,归纳了有针对性的防治措施。     

南宁市坛洛镇岩溶塌陷群成因机制分析

岩溶塌陷是岩溶区较为常见的地质灾害,对其成因机制的研究有助于针对性的进行综合防治。为了弄清2012年6月在广西南宁市坛洛镇连续发生的岩溶塌陷的成因及发育机制,在塌陷群发生地区开展了现场调查、地球物理勘探、水文地质工程地质钻探、地下水动态长期监测、岩土样测试等多项工作。结果表明,坛洛岩溶塌陷群是各种不良因素共同作用的产物。其致塌因素主要包括特殊的“水-土-岩”组合及人为活动。研究区地下水位埋深较浅,土体结构以粘性土为主,渗透系数较低且易崩解,地下岩溶极为发育。高强度的人工地下水开采活动是坛洛岩溶塌陷的诱因。深入分析其发育机理,认为塌陷群是渗流潜蚀效应、增荷失托效应和水位波动产生的气压差效应等3个力学效应综合作用下发生的,其致塌模式是重力致塌、潜蚀致塌、真空吸蚀致塌和冲爆致塌等4种模式的相互结合。根据岩溶塌陷的发生顺序推断坛洛镇岩溶塌陷群的发育过程可分为缓慢发育—塌陷诱发—塌陷集中爆发3个阶段,各阶段的主要地质营力有所不同。      

珠三角丘陵山区岩溶塌陷发育特征及地质模式—以广州北部为例

岩溶塌陷是珠三角岩溶区主要的地质灾害之一。本文以广州丘陵山区为研究区,利用2016~2018年1:50 000环境地质调查成果,分析岩溶塌陷发育现状和特征,研究岩溶塌陷形成地质模式,并提出防治措施建议。结果表明：广州丘陵山区累计已发生岩溶塌陷地质灾害35处,空间分布上具有集中性和反复性特征,时间分布上具有持续性和周期性特点;岩溶塌陷均为碳酸盐岩型的小型土层塌陷,以人为因素诱发为主,自然因素诱发为次,主要危害形式为建筑损坏和农田破坏;岩溶塌陷形成地质模式主要有潜蚀效应致塌,潜蚀、失托增荷和吸蚀效应叠加致塌,潜蚀和振动效应叠加致塌和潜蚀和垂直渗压效应叠加致塌等四种;从上层决策和工程技术角度提出了岩溶塌陷防治措施,为打造广州北部生态农业区和生态公园,建设美丽宜居岭南乡村提供地质科学依据。     

广东佛山市高明区李家村岩溶塌陷群成因机理分析

以自然诱发的李家村岩溶塌陷群为研究对象,在系统收集区域地质、构造、工程、水文、环境、气象、历史灾害等资料的基础上,结合钻探揭露结果,查明了李家村岩溶塌陷群所在区域地质环境条件和岩溶发育特征,分析了形成过程,并探讨了成因机理。结果表明:（1）李家村岩溶塌陷群所在区域覆盖层为带“天窗”的“隔?透”交替型地质结构、基岩可溶岩砾状灰岩中方解石含量高易溶蚀,为土洞和溶洞形成和发展起到决定性作用;北东向和北西向断裂交叉叠加作用、紧靠西江和存在古河道,为地下水潜蚀强径流和频繁交换提供通道,对岩溶发育起到主导作用;地表水和地下水连通性好有助于降雨诱发岩溶塌陷;（2）李家村岩溶塌陷群的发生过程经过三个阶段:前期水渗气压阶段→中期软化塌陷阶段→后期振动群塌阶段,致塌模式属渗压?重力?软化型。（3）李家村岩溶塌陷群是在特殊的“岩?土?水?气”组合地质环境条件下,由强降雨作用诱发并导致土洞垮塌而引起一连串自然塌陷所形成的。     

安徽省沿江地区典型岩溶塌陷区盖层－岩溶组合特征

安徽省沿江地区（铜陵、池州、安庆）岩溶塌陷地质灾害较发育,无论是开展岩溶塌陷地质灾害防治,还是监测预警,都必须研究岩溶塌陷发育的地质环境条件,掌握岩溶塌陷区盖层工程地质特征、下伏碳酸盐岩岩溶发育特征以及盖层－岩溶组合关系。文章以安徽省沿江地区岩溶塌陷为研究对象,在全面收集和总结区内大量岩溶塌陷调查、勘查及监测资料,野外调查典型岩溶塌陷区的基础上,分析了典型岩溶塌陷区盖层工程地质特征、下伏碳酸盐岩岩溶发育特征,并进行概化处理,建立了岩溶塌陷的盖层－岩溶组合地质模型。研究表明:区内典型岩溶塌陷区的组合主要有7种类型,最易产生岩溶塌陷的组合为“第四系盖层为粉质黏土－砂砾卵石双层结构,下伏基岩岩溶发育中等以上”;岩溶塌陷致塌机理主要为潜蚀致塌,其次为真空吸蚀致塌、振动致塌。      

重庆中梁山岩溶地面塌陷特征及形成机理

通过详细调查重庆中梁山地区的岩溶地面塌陷灾害情况,分析出该区地面塌陷特征及形成机理。结果表明:岩溶地面塌陷主要分布在嘉陵江组中的地势低洼处、断层和溶槽处,多发生在降雨量大和地下水水位陡降时期,是自然因素和人类活动共同作用下的结果,数量较多,以土洞型为主;其致塌的力学机制以真空吸蚀作用和潜蚀作用为主,多种作用为辅;在具备岩溶塌陷发生的地质条件下,隧道建设过程中的强排水、降雨和村级公路修建与运营过程中会诱发岩溶地面塌陷的发生。根据岩溶地面塌陷的致塌力学机制和诱发因素,提出预防降雨形成的地表水过度聚集,隧道建设避免地下水陡降,村级公路和隧道选址避开岩溶发育区域等措施,以防止岩溶地面塌陷发生。      

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometric determination of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites

Komatiites are mantle-derived ultramafic volcanic rocks. Komatiites have been discovered in several States of India, notably in Karnataka. Studies on the distribution of trace-elements in the komatiites of India are very few. This paper proposes a simple, accurate, precise, rapid, and non-destructive wavelength-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) spectrometric technique for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites, and discusses the accuracy, precision, limits of detection, x-ray spectral-line interferences, inter-element effects, speed, advantages, and limitations of the technique. The accuracy of the technique is excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th and very good (within 4%) for Y. The precision is also excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th. The limits of detection are: 1 ppm for Sc and V; 2 ppm for Cr, Co, and Ni; 3 ppm for Cu, Zn, Rb, and Sr; 4 ppm for Y and Zr; 6 ppm for Nb; 10 ppm for Ba; 13 ppm for Pb; and 14 ppm for Th. The time taken for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in a batch of 24 samples of komatiites, for a replication of four analyses per sample, by one operator, using a manual WDXRF spectrometer, is only 60 hours.     

高压微波消解法测定醋酸纤维过滤器采集的微尘粒子中的砷镉钴铬铜铁锰镍铅钒锌

最新的流行病学研究表明,空气中较高浓度的悬浮细颗粒可能对人类的健康有不利的影响。根据该项研究显示,由于心脏病、慢性呼吸问题和肺功能指标恶化而导致死亡率的升高与细尘粒子有关。这些研究结果已经促使欧盟于1999年4月出台了限制空气中二氧化硫、二氧化氮、氧化氮、铅和颗粒物含量的法案(1999/30/EC),对各项指标包括对可吸入PM10颗粒的浓度提出了新的限制性指标。PM10颗粒是指可以通过预分级器分离采集的气体动力学直径小于10μm的细颗粒。目前研究的兴趣重点逐步偏向PM2.5这些更细微颗粒物,PM2.5这种颗粒物对健康有明显的不利影响。在欧盟指令2008/50/EC中,对PM10和PM2.5都提     

Isotopic systematics of He,Ar, S,Cu, Ni,Re, Os,Pb, U,Sm, Nd,Rb, Sr,Lu, and Hf in the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits

This paper reports the first results of a study of 11 isotope systems (³He/⁴He, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar, ³⁴S/³²S, ⁶⁵Cu/⁶³Cu, ⁶²Ni/⁶⁰Ni, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd, ^206–208Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, Hf–Nd, U–Pb, and Re–Os) in the rocks and ores of the Cu–Ni–PGE deposits of the Norilsk ore district. Almost all the results were obtained at the Center of Isotopic Research of the Karpinskii All-Russia Research Institute of Geology. The use of a number of independent genetic isotopic signatures and comprehensive isotopic knowledge provided a methodic basis for the interpretation of approximately 5000 isotopic analyses of various elements. The presence of materials from two sources, crust and mantle, was detected in the composition of the rocks and ores. The contribution of the crustal source is especially significant in the paleofluids (gas–liquid microinclusions) of the ore-forming medium. Crustal solutions were probably a transport medium during ore formation. Air argon is dominant in the ores, which indicates a connection between the paleofluids and the atmosphere. This suggests intense groundwater circulation during the crystallization of ore minerals. The age of the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits was determined. The stage of orebody formation is restricted to a narrow age interval of 250 ± 10 Ma. An isotopic criterion was proposed for the ore-bearing potential of mafic intrusions in the Norilsk–Taimyr region. It includes several interrelated isotopic ratios of various elements: He, Ar, S, and others.     

硅酸盐中铁、锰、钛、钙、钾、磷、硅、铝、镁、钠、锶、铷、钡的X-射线荧光光谱定量测定

本文介绍样品经四硼酸锂熔融制成玻璃小饼。采用Lachance模式和理论a系数来校正元素间的效应,由3080E型X-射线荧光谱仪和DF-350B数据处理系统完成硅酸盐中十三个项目的测定。     

硅酸盐类样品中硅、铁、铝、钛、锰、钙、镁、钾、钠和磷的x射线荧光光谱测定

本文拟定了一种以熔融法制备样片,用X射线荧光光谱测定硅酸盐类样品中Si、Fe、Al、Tj、Mn、Ca、Mg、K、Na、P等元素的分析方法。在对不同靶材X光管和分光晶体实验对比的基础上,选择了最佳的测量条件。该法具有快速、准确,测量范围广,检测限低,价格便宜等优点。经过近百个各种类型标样或管理样品的分析对比表明,本法不仅适用于硅酸盐类岩石样品的分析,还适用于铁矿、铝土矿、碳酸盐类岩矿样品以及水泥、耐火材料等样品的分析。     

Viscous, cohesive, non-Newtonian, depositing, radial slurry flow

Mining induced subsidence can significantly affect mining costs where major surface facilities and natural environment need to be protected. Overburden grout injection is a technology used to control coal mine subsidence by injecting the mine waste material extracted from the coal back into the inter-burden rock during longwall mining. The flowing slurry is here categorised as a nonlinear viscous cohesive (Bingham plastic) fluid. During longwall mining the grout slurry is pumped into the separated beds of the rock mass through a central vertical borehole, which is drilled deep into the inter-burden rock strata above the coal seam. However, a blockage can occur in the injection system when the slurry velocity falls below a certain critical threshold velocity, indicating a material phase change from cohesive-viscous to cohesive-frictional. In situ field injection tests through boreholes have been simulated at a smaller scale at the CSIRO laboratory in Brisbane by pumping the slurry through a radial disk (gap = 4 mm) from its centre. Laboratory experiments indicate a general, nonlinear, cohesive, viscous, frictional model for shear behaviour of the slurry, in which the material shear parameters are functions of the disk radial distance. Complete dimensional and dimensionless analytical solutions have been developed based on an approach related to Bingham–Herschel–Bulkley fluid mechanics. The derived formulae include relations for minimum pump pressure, local pressure and pressure gradient, wall shear stress, volume rate, velocity and velocity gradient. The theoretical results match the experimental measurements. The experiments covered slurries with maximum particle sizes of 0.5 to 2 mm with about 50% being larger than 100 µm. The viscosities at the various solids concentrations were measured with a standard torsion viscometer. This study differs from the previous research in several distinct aspects, namely, consideration of the variable shear parameters rather than fixed values, inclusion of total nonlinear behaviour, and implementation of a friction function to mimic behaviour of the deposited and consolidating stiff slurry, which can cause a significant pressure rise as a result of the increased shear resistance.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

岩石密度和超高压岩石折返速率

在常温常压条件下对中国大陆科学钻CCSD主孔100-3000米岩心样品进行了密度测量,建立了密度连续剖面,并界定了不同超高压岩石的密度值。通过对比高温高压物性实验资料,岩石密度随着退变程度增强而降低,榴辉岩密度变化序列为3.52g/cm3→3.49g/cm3→3.07g/cm3→2.93g/cm3。超高压长英质岩石密度变化序列为3.00g/cm→2.80g/cm3→2.65g/cm3。上述实验资料是讨论不同折返阶段岩石所受浮力的基础,为研究折返速率大小提供了基本参数。本文通过折返板块运动平衡时,上浮力与粘滞力平衡这一关系式,定量研究了大陆俯冲板块的折返速率,认为密度差产生上浮力从而引起折返,温度对板块折返速率的影响最为显著;密度差大小、折返角度、折返板块大小对折返速率也有直接的影响。定量模拟分析表明,在温度高于850℃时,板块的折返速率可以超过100mm/a;当温度降至700℃时,折返速率则低于1.5mm/a。作者认为在折返早期,温度较高,板块快速折返至60-70km榴辉岩相深度;随着传导散热,温度降低,板块以较慢的速率折返至中下地壳。折返速率的估算表明,浮力是板块折返第一阶段(从>100km深部折返至<40km的中下地壳)的主要驱动力。     

Regional distribution of Al,B, Ba,Ca, K,La, Mg,Mn, Na,P, Rb,Si, Sr,Th, U and Y in terrestrial moss within a 188,000 km2 area of the central Barents region: influence of geology,seaspray and human activity

Five hundred and ninety-eight samples of terrestrial moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) collected from a 188,000 km² area of the central Barents region (NE Norway, N Finland, NW Russia) were analysed by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Analytical results for Al, B, Ba, Ca, K, La, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Rb, Si, Sr, Th, U and Y concentrations are reported here. Graphical methods of data analysis, such as geochemical maps, cumulative frequency diagrams, boxplots and scatterplots, are used to interpret the origin of the patterns for these elements. None of the elements reported here are emitted in significant amounts from the smelting industry on the Kola Peninsula. Despite the conventional view that moss chemistry reflects atmospheric element input, the nature of the underlying mineral substrate (regolith or bedrock) is found to have a considerable influence on moss composition for several elements. This influence of the chemistry of the mineral substrate can take place in a variety of ways. (1) It can be completely natural, reflecting the ability of higher plants to take up elements from deep soil horizons and shed them with litterfall onto the surface. (2) It can result from naturally increased soil dust input where vegetation is scarce due to harsh climatic conditions for instance. Alternatively, substrate influence can be enhanced by human activity, such as open-cast mining, creation of ‘technogenic deserts’, or handling, transport and storage of ore and ore products, all of which magnify the natural elemental flux from bedrock to ground vegetation. Seaspray is another natural process affecting moss composition in the area (Mg, Na), and this is most visible in the Norwegian part of the study area. Presence or absence of some plant species, e.g., lichens, seems to influence moss chemistry. This is shown by the low concentrations of B or K in moss on the Finnish and Norwegian side of the (fenced) border with Russia, contrasting with high concentrations on the other side (intensive reindeer husbandry west of the border has selectively depleted the lichen population).