The Observer-Generated Information Process: Composite Stages,Cooperative “Logical” Structure,and Self-Organization

Conventional information science generally considers an information process, but traditionally uses the probability measure for random events, and Shannon’s entropy measure as an uncertainty function of the states. The cutting process on separated states decreases quantity information concealed in the states correlation, holding hidden process information.

Up to now, “information process” has not had a scientifically conclusive definition nor its implicit structure.

The presenting information process performs logical operations with discrete information units (Bits) to achieve a goal, integrating the discrete mutually connected sequence of symbols and the extracting process’ hidden information in the structure of an information Observer. The probing time-space observation develops the unit of space-time geometry-memorizing logic.

The defined information process starts generating observations of a random process via the logic of probing impulses, sequentially cutting the process entropy measure and creating the discrete information units whose integration enfolds the information geometrical structure of an Observer. Found composite stages of the information process and the synthesized optimal process trajectory minimize observation time in an artificially designed information Observer with intellectual searching logic. The analytical modeling, computer simulations, and experimental applications validate the results.     

Notifications Efficiency,Impact, and Interference in Second-Screen Scenarios

The growing use of second-screen devices stresses the importance of finding a balance between engagement, distraction, and disturbance of its users, while simultaneously watching television. In this framework, this article reports on a study designed to analyze the efficiency, impact, and interference of different notification strategies aiming to identify the best approach to be used when an alert is needed in second-screen scenarios.

A prototype able to deliver synchronized information related with TV content, with intervals of 10, 30 and 60 s, followed by individual or combined notifications (e.g., audio, visual, and haptic—on the tablet and visual—on the TV) was developed. A laboratory adapted to replicate a living room was set up and a test that involved watching three segments of a 20-min clip while using the prototype was carried with 30 participants, under a cognitive walk-through protocol.

Quantitative and qualitative results show that receiving notifications while watching TV is effective in alerting users about new information, despite its inherent cognitive disturbance for the TV viewing experience. It was also possible to highlight that in an HCI perspective, the most suitable strategy for integrating notifications (considering type and cadence) should be based on a combination of a visual notification (displayed only on the TV screen) along with a haptic notification (vibration on the tablet); spaced by an interval of at least 30 s.     

Distress and worry as mediators in the relationship between psychosocial risks and upper body musculoskeletal complaints in highly automated manufacturing

As a result of changes in manufacturing including an upward trend in automation and the advent of the fourth industrial revolution, the requirement for supervisory monitoring and consequently, cognitive demand has increased in automated manufacturing. The incidence of musculoskeletal disorders has also increased in the manufacturing sector. A model was developed based on survey data to test if distress and worry mediate the relationship between psychosocial factors (job control, cognitive demand, social isolation and skill discretion), stress states and symptoms of upper body musculoskeletal disorders in highly automated manufacturing companies (n = 235). These constructs facilitated the development of a statistically significant model (RMSEA 0.057, TLI 0.924, CFI 0.935). Cognitive demand was shown to be related to higher distress in employees, and distress to a higher incidence of self-reported shoulder and lower back symptoms. The mediation model incorporating stress states (distress, worry) as mediators is a novel approach in linking psychosocial risks to musculoskeletal disorders.

Practitioners’ Summary

With little requirement for physical work in many modern automated manufacturing workplaces, there is often minimal management focus on Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WRMSDs) as important occupational health problems. Our model provides evidence that psychosocial factors are important risk factors in symptoms of WRMSD and should be managed.     

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOMATIC OBJECT-ORIENTED CONTINUOUS SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT

The construction of automatic control and modelling environments has been attempted using shallow reasoning expert systems. The inadequacy of this approach for real-life systems has become apparent, and the need for deeper knowledge—which can only be obtained by extensive simulation—is now acknowledged.

The simulation process, which consists of model building and model selection, followed by the generation and execution of a software simulator, can be partially automated if an Object-Oriented methodology is adopted. In this article, a methodology is presented, which is presently under investigation in the DESiRE (Dynamic Expert Systems in Robotic Experimentation)project

In the modelling phase, a hierarchical, uniform way of describing and manipulating continuous and discrete models is needed, if the highly desirable reusability of submodels is to be achieved. This is only possible if a clear distinction is made between bare models (and information about their intrinsic coupling) and causal simulation experiment-related data.

In the simulation phase, before generating numerical simulation code, a symbolic reduction of the continuous parts of the model is performed, thus eliminating inaccuracy introduced by the untimely application of possibly unstable numerical algorithms.

Finally, from the reduced representation, executable simulator-objects are produced for use in a distributed environment.     

DISCRETE EVENT-DYNAMIC SYSTEMS FOR MODELING DYNAMIC VALUED NETS

The last few years have seen the development of Discrete Event-Dynamic Net Systems^1,2 as instruments for modeling complex systems. They are able to achieve the following objectives:

—formality of the modeling methodology

—ability to model static and dynamic aspects

—ability to pass between levels of differently rich structures by morphisms

—uniform representation of the communication process as

—an information process

—a decision process and

—a control process

—homogeneity of the representation and modeling methods

—ability to derive qualitative and quantitative statements.

The foundation is provided by a Discrete Event-Dynamic Net System which includes the axiomatic declaration of general Petri nets. In order to calculate the structural and dynamic aspects, so-called Petri net machines are developed. It is shown that this approach can even be used to treat the following aspects:

—use of time during the process

—increase of costs during the generation and transportation of information

—augmentation, evaluation and transformation of information objects.

Recursive formulas are derived and some examples calculated.     

Normative data on the one-handed static pull strength of a Chinese population and a comparison with American data

We assess the one-handed static pull strength of a Chinese population and compare it to that of an American sample. Fifty men and 50 women in five age groups were asked to exert their maximum one-handed pull strength in three pulling directions (across, front and side) and from four pulling heights (61 cm, 76 cm, waist height and above-shoulder height). The results showed that women had less pull strength than men under all of the conditions tested. The front and side pulling resulted in the greatest pull strength, with a decrease detected when the pulling height was increased. The American sample exhibited greater strength than the Chinese. Body mass and men’s handgrip force were also associated with the pull strength. These variables should be taken into account in the development of tasks related to one-handed pulling.

Practitioner summary:

In this paper, we report a laboratory-based experiment conducted to assess the one-handed static pull strength of a Chinese population and compare the results with those of an American population. The variables associated with pull strength included gender, pulling direction, pulling height, race, body mass and men’s handgrip force.     

A comfort assessment of existing cervical orthoses

Purpose: Identify location and intensity of discomfort experienced by healthy participants wearing cervical orthoses.

Method: Convenience sample of 34 healthy participants wore Stro II, Philadelphia, Headmaster, and AspenVista^® cervical orthoses for four-hour periods. Participants reported discomfort level (scale 0–6) and location.

Results: Participants reported mean discomfort for all orthoses over the four-hour test between ‘a little discomfort’ and ‘very uncomfortable’ (mean discomfort score = 1.64, SD = 1.50). Seven participants prematurely stopped tests due to pain and six reported maximum discomfort scores. Significant linear increase in discomfort with duration of wear was found for all orthoses. Significantly less discomfort was reported with Stro II than Headmaster and Philadelphia. Age correlated with greater perceived discomfort. Orthoses differed in the location discomfort was experienced.

Conclusion: Existing cervical orthoses cause discomfort influenced by design and duration of wear with orthoses’ design the more significant factor. This work informed the design of a new orthosis and future orthoses developments.

Practitioner Summary: The purpose of this study was to gain greater knowledge about the discomfort caused by wearing of existing neck orthoses in order to inform the design and development of a new neck orthosis. This study gathers empirical data from a surrogate population and concludes that orthosis design is more influential than the duration of wear.     

The Proactive and Preventive Privacy (3P) Framework for IoT Privacy by Design

The Problem

Internet of Things (IoT) is providing new services and insights by sensing contextual data but there are growing concerns of privacy risks from users that need immediate attention.

The Reason

The IoT devices and smart services can capture Personally Identifiable Information (PII) without user knowledge or consent. The IoT technology has not reached the desired level of maturity to standardize security and privacy requirements.

The Solution

IoT Privacy by Design is a user-centric approach for enabling privacy with security and safety as a ‘win-win’ positive outcome of IoT offerings, irrespective of business domain. The Proactive and Preventive Privacy (3P) Framework proposed in this paper should be adopted by the IoT stakeholders for building trust and confidence in end users about IoT devices and smart services.     

A METHODOLOGY OF COORDINATION IN JAPANESE COMPANY-WIDE QUALITY CONTROL

In the practice of Japanese company-wide quality control, some tools which help us to coordinate company-wide activities are developed. One of the main functions of these tools is to organise the diversified information related to the company-wide activities

This report discusses the basic recognition underlying the use of these tools, and presents on a conceptual level an essential philosophy and methodology of coordinating company-wide activities

The basic idea of this report is to make an additional subsystem which helps us to organize the diversified information of activities in order to coordinate activities easily.     

Driving comfort,enjoyment and acceptance of automated driving – effects of drivers’ age and driving style familiarity

Automated driving has the potential to improve the safety and efficiency of future traffic and to extend elderly peoples’ driving life, provided it is perceived as comfortable and joyful and is accepted by drivers. Driving comfort could be enhanced by familiar automated driving styles based on drivers’ manual driving styles. In a two-stage driving simulator study, effects of driving automation and driving style familiarity on driving comfort, enjoyment and system acceptance were examined. Twenty younger and 20 older drivers performed a manual and four automated drives of different driving style familiarity. Acceptance, comfort and enjoyment were assessed after driving with standardised questionnaires, discomfort during driving via handset control. Automation increased both age groups’ comfort, but decreased younger drivers’ enjoyment. Younger drivers showed higher comfort, enjoyment and acceptance with familiar automated driving styles, whereas older drivers preferred unfamiliar, automated driving styles tending to be faster than their age-affected manual driving styles.

Practitioner Summary: Automated driving needs to be comfortable and enjoyable to be accepted by drivers, which could be enhanced by driving style individualisation. This approach was evaluated in a two-stage driving simulator study for different age groups. Younger drivers preferred familiar driving styles, whereas older drivers preferred driving styles unaffected by age.     

MEASUREMENT THEORY AND SIGNAL THEORY PART I—Investigations on the Foundations

The concept of a sensor with finite resolution is chosen as the cornerstone of a physical measurement theory. It is concluded that the concept of a band-limited channel is less appropriate for this purpose because it is defined with help of specific mathematical operators on functions that are defined on an infinite interval.

It is shown that measurement in continuum physics requires transfer, transformation and transport of energy to, by, and through a sensor: a non-equilibrium process. As theory requires equilibrium for any measurement, a paradox arises. It is indicated that experimental physics avoids this paradox with help of a hierarchy of space and time scales. The definitions and propositions are formulated in a similar way in order to avoid this equilibrium/non-equilibrium paradox.

The equivalence of the various forms of energy, as stated by the first law of thermodynamics and verified by experimental physics, renders interpretation of physical measurement relatively easy.

Signals are defined to be products of measurement. They are carriers of a finite amount of information. As the class of continuous functions generate an infinite amount of information, discrete functions are selected to represent sampled and digitized signals. If the sampling interval is of the order of the largest characteristic time scale of the total system, then little information is lost by digitization. The number of significant digits is related to the resolution of the sensor and of the other parts of the measuring instrument. A measuring instrument is shown to be composed of a chain or a set of chains of sensors.     

A THEORETICAL STUDY ON ADAPTIVE QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS

This paper is a study of an adaptive quality control system from a viewpoint of quality goal. The main purpose is to introduce a conceptual framework for setting up quality goals which are in accordance with the external environment and internal capacity of quality control systems. We apply a mathematical general systems approach.

The results of our paper are summarized as follows:

1)As important decision-making in adaptive QCS, the decision-making for estimalion of fitness and examination of attainability are proposed and formalized mathematically.

2)A refinement process is formalized in which models are revised according to the changes of market.

3)Basic steps for setting quality goals are obtained which are based on the above formalization.     

Fighter pilots’ heart rate,heart rate variation and performance during instrument approaches

Fighter pilots’ heart rate (HR), heart rate variation (HRV) and performance during instrument approaches were examined. The subjects were required to fly instrument approaches in a high-fidelity simulator under various levels of task demand. The task demand was manipulated by increasing the load on the subjects by reducing the range at which they commenced the approach. HR and the time domain components of HRV were used as measures of pilot mental workload (PMWL). The findings of this study indicate that HR and HRV are sensitive to varying task demands. HR and HRV were able to distinguish the level of PMWL after which the subjects were no longer able to cope with the increasing task demands and their instrument landing system performance fell to a sub-standard level. The major finding was the HR/HRV’s ability to differentiate the sub-standard performance approaches from the high-performance approaches.

Practitioner Summary:

This paper examined if HR and HRV were sensitive to varying task demands in a fighter aviation environment and if these measures were related to variations in pilot’s performance.     

The Importance of Auditing Your Company’s Strategic Plan

A company’s strategic plan is its long-term outlook that sets out the plans, goals, objectives and actions for the next three to ten years. The board needs an objective assurance that the plan was properly developed. The internal audit function is best positioned to provide this assurance. The reason: it is one of the board’s most powerful mechanisms for understanding the full spectrum of key governance, risk, and control issues facing the company embodied in the strategic plan.

Auditing a strategic plan begins with a review of what it constitutes (its elements) and the methodology (its process) used in developing the plan. It thus becomes much easier to focus the audit effort in determining whether the output for each step along the way in these two broad streams has been achieved.

If not carefully planned and executed, a strategic plan audit could do irreparable damage to the reputation of the audit effort throughout the organization. As a result, it requires a multi-talented team with a high-powered leader, preferably the chief audit executive.

Although a strategic plan fails due to such common factors as planning teams lacking an understanding of the business, lack of commitment, not having the right people, or not adapting to a changing environment to take full advantage of technological developments, there is a key reason often overlooked: lack of an audit of the plan itself which, if done properly, could uncover these reasons for failure long before they happen.     

Fast detection of significantly transformed areas due to illegal waste burial with a procedure applicable to Landsat images

The problem of illegal waste burial is a serious threat to human health and ecosystems. These illegal activities occur most often in areas which have been heavily modified and considered degraded, mainly quarry areas and landfills, even if it is licensed.

To identify the areas where there is suspicion of illegal waste burial, a great amount of time is often necessary. As a matter of fact, the detection of suspicious areas is often based on a comparison of available airborne images with high temporal and spatial resolution, and surveys. This is also done to gather significant aspect of change as deep soil reshuffle in small excavation areas. These methods however, take a long time to be applied because large areas have to be analysed within sub-areas. Consequently, there is loss of understanding related to a wider and complete phenomenon that allows us to have information of all the territory that has undergone heavy transformations, especially if due to illegal conduct of waste disposal. As a result, there are no enough data to strategically evaluate how to counteract such illegal activities.

Since these areas have already been heavily disturbed and subjected to continuous changes over time, one or more detection techniques in a standardized procedure might only be applicable in some contexts. The above method comparison and survey is certainly a useful tool for detecting areas affected by excavation activities or waste illegal disposal. It also provides information where significant transformations have occurred in a short time.

The purpose of this work is the development of a processing procedure with Landsat images applicable to agro-ecosystems that can produce results in heavily transformed areas where suspicion of illegal waste burial is high.     

THEORY OF CYBERNETIC AND INTELLIGENT MACHINE BASED ON LIE COMMUTATORS

Many attempts^{1, 7, 8, 35} have been made to overcome the limit imposed by the Turing Machine³⁴ to realise general mathematical functions and models of (physical) phenomena.

They center around the notion of computability.

In this paper we propose a new definition of computability which lays the foundations for a theory of cybernetic and intelligent machines in which the classical limits imposed by discrete algorithmic procedures are offset by the use of continuous operators on unlimited data. This data is supplied to the machine in a totally parallel mode, as a field or wave.

This theory of machines draws its concepts from category theory, Lie algebras, and general systems theory. It permits the incorporation of intelligent control into the design of the machine as a virtual element. The incorporated control can be realized in many (machine) configurations of which we give three:

a) a quantum mechanical realization appropriate to a possible understanding of the quantum computer and other models of the physical microworld,

b) a stochastic realization based on Kolmogorov-Gabor theory leading to a possible understanding of generalised models of the physical or thermodynamic macroworld, and lastly

c) a classical mechanical realization appropriate lo the study of a new class of robots.

Particular applications at a fundamental level are cited in geometry, mathematics, biology, acoustics, aeronautics, quantum mechanics, general relativity and. Markov chains. The proposed theory therefore opens a new way towards understanding the processes that underlie intelligence.     

Agency modulates interactions with automation technologies

The increasing presence of automation between operators and automated systems tends to disrupt operators from action outcomes, leading them to leave the control loop. The theoretical framework of agency suggests that priming the operator about the system’s upcoming behaviour could help restore an appropriate sense of control and increase user acceptance of what the system is doing. In a series of two experiments, we test whether providing information about what the system is about to do next leads to an increase in the level of user acceptance, concomitant with an increase in control and performance. Using an aircraft supervision task, we demonstrated the benefit of prime messages regarding system acceptance and performance. Taken together, our results indicate that the principles proposed by this framework could be used to improve human–machine interaction and maintain a high level of sense of control in supervisory tasks.

Practitioner Summary: The out-of-the-loop performance problem is a major potential consequence of automation, leaving operators helpless to takeover automation in case of failure. Using an aircraft supervision task, the following article illustrates how the psychological approach of agency can help improving human–system interactions by designing more acceptable and more controllable automated interfaces     

Chaum's protocol for detecting man-in-the-middle: Explanation,demonstration, and timing studies for a text-messaging scenario

This article explains, demonstrates, and evaluates Chaum’s protocol for detecting a man-in-the-middle (MitM) of text-messaging network communications. MitM attacks pose serious risks to many network communications. Networks often mitigate these risks with robust protocols, such as TLS, which assume some type of public-key infrastructure that provides a mechanism for the authenticated exchange of public keys. By contrast, Chaum’s protocol aims to detect a MitM with minimal assumptions and technology, and in particular without assuming the authenticated exchange of public keys. Chaum assumes that the eavesdropper can “sound like” the communicants but that the eavesdropper cannot fabricate sensible conversations.

Using an encryption function and one-way function, Chaum’s protocol works in three phases. In Phase I, the communicants exchange their public keys. In Phase II, each communicant generates a random string. The first communicant cryptographically commits to that string, and sends the string to the other communicant after receiving the other’s string. In Phase III, using any of four different “scenarios” the communicants verify that each possesses the same two strings. The protocol forces any MitM to cause the communicants to possess different pairs of strings. The text-messaging scenario is similar to a forced-latency protocol proposed by Wilcox-O’Hearn in 2003.

This article implements and experimentally demonstrates the effectiveness of the third scenario, which uses timing to detect a MitM in text-messaging. Even assuming a MitM can send messages without any network latency, the protocol forces the MitM to cause delays noticeable by the communicants. This article is the first to explain, demonstrate, and evaluate Chaum’s protocol, which Chaum described only in an abandoned and nearly inscrutable patent application.     

The influence of cooling forearm/hand and gender on estimation of handgrip strength

Handgrip strength is essential in manual operations and activities of daily life, but the influence of forearm/hand skin temperature on estimation of handgrip strength is not well documented. Therefore, the present study intended to investigate the effect of local cooling of the forearm/hand on estimation of handgrip strength at various target force levels (TFLs, in percentage of MVC) for both genders. A cold pressor test was used to lower and maintain the hand skin temperature at 14°C for comparison with the uncooled condition. A total of 10 male and 10 female participants were recruited. The results indicated that females had greater absolute estimation deviations. In addition, both genders had greater absolute deviations in the middle range of TFLs. Cooling caused an underestimation of grip strength. Furthermore, a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force.

Statement of relevance: Manipulation with grip strength is essential in daily life and the workplace, so it is important to understand the influence of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. Females and the middle range of TFL had greater deviations. Cooling the forearm/hand tended to cause underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force.

Practitioner Summary: It is important to understand the effect of lowering the forearm/hand skin temperature on grip-strength estimation. A cold pressor was used to cool the hand. The cooling caused underestimation, and a power function is recommended for establishing the relationship between actual and estimated handgrip force.     

Relative Advantages of Digital Preservation Management in Developing Countries

The purpose of this article is to explore stakeholders’ perspectives on the relative advances of digital preservation management over traditional heritage management approaches in developing countries, particularly in Africa. Specific examples from the context of Ghana are used to help understand the particular factors that influence the relative advantage of the digital preservation management innovation. The article is based on the findings of a PhD study that explored contextual factors influencing the management and preservation of digital cultural heritage resources in Ghana and it is underpinned by Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation model. An interpretive qualitative approach was employed to solicit the perspectives of 29 key stakeholders from 13 institutions in Ghana through semi-structure interviews. This was followed by an analysis of relevant literature to ascertain how the findings from the context of Ghana relate to other developing countries in Africa.

Stakeholders perceive that the digital preservation management innovation has relative advantages over other traditional ways of managing and preserving heritage information in many ways, including; as an effective means to manage cultural heritage resources; enhancing collaboration and resource sharing; contributes to the building strong cultural institutions; leading to the establishment of a national digital memory for developing countries; as an effective means to preserve value of cultural identity for the long term into the digital future; and enabling research and advancement of cultural knowledge.

Findings from the literature analysis also show that these relative advantages of the digital preservation management (DPM) innovation occur in similar forms in other developing countries in Africa. Further empirical studies in other developing countries are recommended to fully ascertain the main relative advantages of the DPM innovation over traditional approaches of heritage resources management and preservation.