A historical hypothesis on the origin of the norton grape

During the early nineteenth century, the state of Virginia, USA, had several indigenous varieties of hybrid wine grapes. These appeared naturally as attempts at growing European Vitis vinifera provided a European pollen source for nearby wild American grapes while the vinifera survived. Grapes such as red bland, cunningham, woodson, ronk's blue grape, and beaverdam were once found across Virginia. Today, Virginia producers grow only one representative from that time – the norton variety. Fragmented historical evidence provides for an incomplete, yet compelling argument for the origin of this important variety with only a few reasoned inferences. The resulting hypothesis provides a guide to a robust viticulture for Virginia (and eastern North America) that, if revived, would be the foundation for a truly sustainable viticulture. Norton analog grapes could be grown to produce fruit with high enough quality for excellent wine with a fraction (at most 1/5–1/4 current rates) of the pesticides used to grow European V. vinifera that currently dominate the region's grape growing. Eastern North America could once again set about perfecting indigenous wines unique in the world.     

Oenological potential of wines produced from disease-resistant grape cultivars

Within the EU, changes in policy and public sentiment have made it more urgent to consider the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. Consequently, one of the EU’s goals is to reduce pesticide use by 50 per cent by 2030, including in viticulture. One of the proposed approaches is to expand the use of disease resistant hybrid grape-cultivars (DRHGC), such as ‘PIWI’ grapes (German, Pilzwiderstandsfähige Rebsorten), and to introduce new DRHGCs. However, the characteristics of DRHGCs are different from those of Vitis vinifera, which makes it necessary to take measures and make changes in winemaking technology to maintain high wine quality. This paper examines the chemistry of wines made from DRHGC and discusses their impact on aroma and flavor profiles. It also reviews the main winemaking practices suggested to produce high-quality wines from DRHGCs. The chemistry of DRHGCs is different to wine produced from V. vinifera, which can lead to both challenges during winemaking and unusual flavor profiles. Although newer DRHGCs have been bred to avoid unexpected flavors, many DRHGCs are still rich in proteins and polysaccharides. This can make tannin extraction difficult and produce wines with little astringency. In addition to this, new or alternative winemaking techniques such as thermovinification and the use of alternative yeast strains (non-Saccharomyces) can be used to produce wines from DRHGCs that are acceptable to consumers.     

In vitro antioxidant activity of red grape skins

Phenolic antioxidants seem to be partly responsible for the protective effects against cardiovascular diseases attributed to moderate wine consumption. Grape skins greatly contribute to the phenolic composition of red wine. In this paper, the in vitro antioxidant activity of red grape (Vitis vinifera) skins is determined. We show that the radical scavenging activity (C ₅₀ values) against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH^·) of grape skin extracts is relatively high (3.2–11.1 mg dried skin/mg DPPH^·) in relation to other foodstuffs and, as expected, is influenced by grape variety, stage of grape ripening and vintage. The antioxidant potential of grape skins seems to be transferred into wine since grape varieties with skins exhibiting high antioxidant potential also resulted in wines with high antioxidant activity. Statistically significant correlations were found between antioxidant activity and phenolic content (total polyphenols, proanthocyanins, catechins and anthocyanins) for both grape skins and wines.     

Comparison of phenolic and chromatic characteristics of dry red wines made from native Chinese grape species and vitis vinifera

The phenolic and chromatic characteristics of dry red wines made from native Chinese species (Vitis amurensis and its hybrids, and V. davidii) and V. vinifera were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography/triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry and spectrophotometer, respectively. V. amurensis and its hybrids wines had higher phenolic percentage of non-coumaroylated 3, 5-O-diglucosidic anthocyanins, V. davidii wines had higher phenolic percentage of coumaroylated 3, 5-O-diglucosidic anthocyanins, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, V. vinifera wines had higher phenolic percentage offlavan-3-ols and 3-O-monoglucosidic anthocyanins. Wines of native Chinese species had relatively higher blue % value and lower red % value. By the use of principal component analysis and Pearson correlation analysis, specific phenolic compounds could be recognized as phenolic fingerprints of different wines, which not only play an important role in wine differentiation, but also explain their chromatic differences.     

Volatile aroma compounds in wines from Chinese wild/hybrid species

The volatile aroma compounds in wines produced from Chinese wild/hybrid species were investigated in comparison to wines from European grapes. Volatiles were extracted by headspace solid‐phase micro‐extraction and identified by gas‐chromatography/mass‐spectrometry. The identification of analyte was performed by a combination of the linear retention index approach with the comparison of the obtained mass spectra. A total of 98 peaks were tentatively assigned as wine aroma components, and 15 odorants can be found at concentrations above their odor threshold among the odor activity values (OAVs) of 46 compounds evaluated in all of the wines. The “OAVs’ aroma wheels” showed that the classes of aromatic series are first fruity, next herbaceous and roasty and no spicy and caramelized notes. Via principal component analysis, all the grape germplasm studied could be divided into four groups: “Jingsheng‐1,” “Cabernet Gernischt,” “Beibinghong,” and others, which exhibited distinctive aroma features, respectively. Practical applications Chinese wild grape species have many desirable properties for wine grape breeding such as possessing strong resistant genes to fungal diseases and cold condition, especially after hybridization with European grapes. As an emerging wine country, wines from Chinese wild/hybrid species have achieved much success in the last few years. The chemical content and biological properties have been studied extensively in many but there are a few studies in our knowledge about the wine tastes of these species. In this paper, the key odorants in wines produced from the Chinese grape species of V. amurensis Rupr., V. davidii Foex., and V. quinquangularis Rehd. and its hybrids were characterized in comparison to wines produced from European grapes (V. vinifera). The findings will help to the further understanding of the key aroma components in the different Chinese grapevine germplasm, and make further efforts to enrich the wine types in the marketplace.     

Statistical optimization of ethanol fermentation parameters for processing local grape cultivars to wines

Grape juice from two local grape cultivars viz. Punjab MACS purple and H‐144 was subjected to prefermentation skin treatment. Ethanol fermentation w.r.t agitation rate, temperature, inoculum size, and nutrient supplementation were optimized using Triple M medium following response surface methodology (RSM). RSM results were numerically optimized keeping temperature “in range” for red wine and “low” for white wine which showed agitation rate of 80 ± 1 rpm for 24 hr, diammonium hydrogen orthophosphate supplementation @ 150 mg/100 ml, inoculum size of 6.1 and 6.5% (vol/vol), and fermentation temperature of 24.6 and 21 °C as optimum for ethanol fermentation of red and white wines, respectively. Optimized results were validated on grape juice of Punjab MACS purple and H‐144 cultivars that lead to 12.0 and 11.2 (%vol/vol) ethanol production, respectively. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of 41 volatile compounds in the form of phenols, alcohols, terpenes, esters, ketones, and amines that add to the nutraceutical and antioxidant value of the wines.

Practical applications

Present study provides the statistical optimized fermentation parameters for red and white wine production separately. Optimization of an efficient processing technology to produce local grape wines will help to reduce the price of wines so that they are available to common masses at affordable costs besides improving the economic status of grape growers in the state and providing valuable information to wine makers to establish winery under North Indian conditions. Use of synthetic grape juice (Triple M media; during off season of grapes) lead to optimization of ethanol fermentation parameters in two separate fashions considering fermentation temperature as key parameter. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis showed the presence of flavonoids, terpenes, and esters increasing nutritive value of product, providing antioxidants to the consuming person.     

Characterization of Polish Wines Produced from the Multispecies Hybrid and Vitis vinifera L. Grapes

Phenolic profile, antioxidant activity, and color parameters of Polish wines, produced from the multispecies hybrid and Vitis vinifera L. grapes were analyzed. A principal component analysis was applied, in order to differentiate the investigated wines in terms of content of phenolic compounds. The white wines turned out to be similar to each other in terms of color parameters and the results of principal component analysis, while the red wines strongly differed in this respect. However, the white wine produced from the multispecies hybrid grapes contained a higher level of phenolic acids and flavonoids, as compared to the white wines obtained from the hybrid cultivars. Out of the red wines, Rondo wine, produced from the multispecies hybrid grapevine was the richest in total phenolic and phenolic acids content. Caffeic acid and quercetin were the predominant phenolics in majority of the wines tested.     

Sugar and acid concentrations in 98 grape cultivars analyzed by principal component analysis

A total of 98 grape cultivars were studied for content and composition of organic acids and sugars in grape juice during two consecutive years. Glucose and fructose were the predominant sugars in grape berries and ranged from 45.86 to 122.89 mg mL^?1, and 47.64 to 131.04 mg mL^?1, respectively, in two years. Sucrose was present at trace amounts in most cultivars, but two cultivars of hybrids between Vitis labrusca and V. vinifera contained large amounts of sucrose. Tartaric acid content in berries, varying from 1.57 to 9.09 and 1.54 to 9.05 mg mL^?1, respectively, in two years, was significantly higher than malic acid, which ranged from 0.38 to 6.05 and 0.36 to 7.06 mg mL^?1, respectively, in two years. Moreover, significantly higher total soluble sugars and fructose and lower total acids and malic acid were found in cultivars from hybrids between V. labrusca and V. vinifera than those in V. vinifera cultivars, and wine grapes had higher total sugars and acids than table grapes from V. vinifera. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that genotypic correlations among sugar and acid contents were stable and the first three PCs accounted for about 82% of total variance in both years. PC1 was highly connected with glucose and fructose contents, and sucrose was an important contributor to the variance for PC2, as well as for PC3. PC2 and PC3 were highly connected also with organic acids, but the contributor to variance differed from one year to the next. Tartaric acid was the main contributor to variance in 2003, and malic acid was important in 2004 for PC2 and PC3. In a scatter plot of the score values of all genotypes projected to the PC1 and PC2 plane, three groups of cultivars tend to cluster based on their genetic background or purpose of use. The cultivars of hybrid V. labrusca and V. vinifera were represented by high sugars, especially sucrose, and low acids. Among the cultivars of V. vinifera, wine grapes were found in general to have more sugars and acids than table grapes. The composition of sugars was stable in grape berries between the two years, while acids were sensitive to climate changes. Finally, the different responses of malic and tartaric acids to climate change is discussed. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

干红树葡萄酒与干红葡萄酒功能成分及其抗氧化活性对比

分别测定干红树葡萄酒与2种干红葡萄酒(法国干红葡萄酒、国产干红葡萄酒)中的总多酚、总黄酮、白藜芦醇、单宁、酚酸、维生素、花青素及矿物质等功能性成分,采用DPPH法、ABTS法、邻二氮菲法和FRAP法分析3种酒的抗氧化能力,并对其差异进行分析比较。结果表明:干红树葡萄酒与2种干红葡萄酒功能成分种类及含量各有特点和优势。干红树葡萄酒中没食子酸、VA、VC、Mn与Zn含量均极显著高于国产干红葡萄酒和法国干红葡萄酒;法国干红葡萄酒中总多酚、总黄酮、白藜芦醇、儿茶素、咖啡酸、香豆酸、阿魏酸、矢车菊色素及Fe含量均极显著高于国产干红葡萄酒和干红树葡萄酒;国产干红葡萄酒中单宁、VD、飞燕草色素、矮牵牛色素、天竺葵色素、芍药色素、锦葵色素、Ca和Mg含量均极显著高于法国干红葡萄酒和干红树葡萄酒。3种酒抗氧化活性亦各具特色,树葡萄红酒对DPPH·的清除能力最强,法国干红葡萄酒对·OH的清除能力最强,国产干红葡萄酒对ABTS~+的清除能力及对铁离子的还原能力最强。     

Ochratoxin A in wine and grape juice sold in Canada.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) was determined in 251 samples of wines and grape juice collected over 3 years in Canada. In total, 25/84 samples of red wine, 22/96 samples of white wine, 3/46 red grape juices and 1/25 white grape juices contained OTA levels above the limit of quantitation (LOQ). Canadian wines, when compared with imported products, showed both a lower OTA occurrence, noted as positive (19 versus 48% above the limit of detection (LOD) for wines), and a lower level of OTA contamination (upper bound mean of 17.5 versus 163pg ml(-1) for wines). Wines from the USA contained no quantifiable levels of ochratoxin A. OTA was found in Canadian and US grape juice samples, with 12.9% above the LOD and an upper bound mean of 13.3pg ml(-1). It was extracted from a wine or grape juice sample by passing it through an immunoaffinity column. The sample matrix was washed off the column with water. OTA was eluted from the column with methanol and quantitatively determined by liquid chromatography using a fluorescence detector. The presence of OTA was confirmed by esterification with boron trifluoride-methanol. The LOQ of OTA was estimated as 20 pg ml(-1) in white wine (S/N 10:1) and 40 pg ml(-1) in red wine, white grape juice and red grape juice (S/N 20.1). The LOD was estimated as 4pgml(-1) for white wine and 8pgml(-1) for red wine and white and red grape juices (S/N 3:1).     

Optimisation of the Amido Black assay for determination of the protein content of grape juices and wines

While the heat/chill stability of white wines cannot be predicted from the total protein concentration, this information is useful in assessing the effectiveness of fining treatments. We have adapted the Amido Black assay for use in grape juice and wine. The response of bovine serum albumin (BSA) was similar in water, model wine and model juice. The linear range of the assay (<100 mg l^?1) extends beyond protein concentrations typically found in grape juices and wines. The limit of quantification was 11.1 mg l^?1 for BSA in model wine and 7.6 mg l^?1 in model juice, while the limit of detection was found to be less than 3 mg l^?1 in either solution. In contrast to other methods of protein determination, this assay is not affected by common wine phenolic and pectic compounds or by glutathione. The mean response of BSA was similar in model juice and red and white grape juices. The mean response of BSA in red wine was lower than in white wine and model wine (p < 0.001), and there was considerable variation in response among wines. Protein concentrations determined using this method were reproducible (CV < 10%). This optimised assay can be used to monitor protein levels in grape juices and wines. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Aging of red wines made from hybrid grape cv. BRS Violeta: Effects of accelerated aging conditions on phenolic composition,color and antioxidant activity

Aging is an enological technique usually employed with Vitis vinifera wines for improving and stabilizing wine sensory attributes like red wine color. However, red wines made from non-vinifera grape cultivars are considered not suitable for classic wine aging because they are prone to color loss during processing and storage, mainly due to the major occurrence of non-acylated anthocyanidin 3,5-diglucosides. The recently developed hybrid grape cv. BRS Violeta gives rise to deep red-purplish colored wines characterized by an important contribution of p-coumaroylated anthocyanidin 3,5-diglucosides. In this work, Violeta red wines were subjected to control (storage at 15 °C) and accelerated (storage at 25, 35 and 50 °C) aging for 120 days. Total phenolic content was only significantly decreased by 23% in accelerated aged wines at 50 °C, whereas antioxidant capacity was mainly reduced in the first 20 days of aging (around 35% for all the wines, except for 45% for wine aged at 50 °C) and then remained almost stable. In contrast, total anthocyanin content decreased following expected first-order kinetics and the variation of rate constants with regard to temperature fitted well with an Arrhenius-type equation. The calculated activation energy for disappearance of anthocyanins (47 kJ/mol) was close to the lower limit of the range of values reported for thermal degradation of anthocyanidin 3-glucosides. In addition, half-life values for p-coumaroylated anthocyanidin 3,5-glucosides of Violeta wine aged at 50 °C almost doubled those of their corresponding non-acylated derivatives. The latter result is suggested to be the main reason behind the relatively high resistance of Violeta wine towards the disappearance of anthocyanin under accelerated aging conditions. Finally, chromatic characteristics of Violeta wines did not significantly change their C* values during aging but L* and h* values increased as expected, the latter mainly due to higher increases of the yellow color component (b*) over lower decreases of the red color component (a*). These color changes were more drastic in the accelerated aged wines and the wine aged at 25 °C still maintained interesting color characteristics close to those of the control aged wine that did not change very much.     

Anthocyanin composition and content in grape berry skin in Vitis germplasm

The composition and content of anthocyanins were surveyed by HPLC–MS for assessing genotypic variation in berry skin of 110 grape cultivars, including 3 species and 5 interspecific hybrids. Twenty-nine anthocyanins were identified. For total anthocyanin content, Vitis vinifera and hybrids of Vitis labrusca and V. vinifera were low, and in general, wild species and rootstock were higher than interspecific hybrids, and wine grapes were higher than table grapes in the same species. As regards the composition of anthocyanins, malvidin-derivatives were the most abundant anthocyanins in the majority of germplasms. All anthocyanins were monoglucoside derivatives in V. vinifera, but all the other Vitis germplasms had both mono- and di-glucoside derivatives. Moreover, peonidin-derivatives and malvidin 3-O-glucoside were, respectively, main anthocyanins in table and wine grapes of V. vinifera. Via principal component analysis, the distribution of the cultivars in a scatter plot depended upon their total anthocyanins content, mono- and di-glucoside derivatives.     

葡萄酒及葡萄皮渣提取物抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶活性研究

建立乙酰胆碱酯酶抑制剂体外筛选模型,对不同的葡萄酒及葡萄皮渣提取物等19种样品进行了乙酰胆碱酯酶活性抑制作用的研究。结果显示白葡萄酒几乎无乙酰胆碱酯酶抑制活性,红葡萄酒对乙酰胆碱酯酶具有不同的抑制活性,抑制率最高为山葡萄酒,其抑制率为11.12%。葡萄皮渣的水、乙醇、乙酸乙酯提取物,具有抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶活性,其抑制率分别为3.91%、18.25%、20.76%,乙酸乙酯提取物的抑制效果最好。红葡萄酒和葡萄皮渣的乙酸乙酯提取物可作为辅助治疗阿尔茨海默病的先导化合物进行深入研究。     

Influence of sour rotten grapes on the chemical composition and quality of grape must and wine

This study evaluated the effect of grape sour rot on wine fermentation and characterized the chemical composition and the sensory changes in wines produced from rotten musts. Microvinifications were performed during two vintages using healthy Trincadeira and Cabernet Sauvignon red grape varieties to which were added grapes affected by sour rot. Increasing sour rot percentages, up to 50%, contributed to a clear decrease in free run must and final wine yields and induced significant changes in grape must chemical composition expressed by the increase in sugar content, total acidity, volatile acidity, anthocyanins, total phenols, and color intensity. After malolactic fermentation, wines from rotten grapes showed higher values of alcohol content, dry extract, reducing sugar content, total and volatile acidity, anthocyanins, total phenols, and color intensity. Despite the higher levels of reducing sugars, the microbial stability was similar to that of healthy wines. The sensorial evaluation, after malolactic fermentation, showed that both types of wine were not statistically different regarding color, aroma, taste, and overall quality. During 6–8 month storage, wines from rotten grapes showed a significant higher percentage of color loss, suggesting that sour rot is responsible for the decrease in color stability. Nevertheless, the results of sensorial analysis demonstrated that the fermentation of grape musts containing up to 30% sour rot yields wines with similar or even higher-quality scores than wines made with healthy grapes.     

Characterization of wines from grape varieties through multivariate statistical analysis of H NMR spectroscopic data

¹H NMR spectroscopic analysis coupled with multivariate statistical data was used to characterize wines vinified from four grape varieties: Muscat Bailey A (Vitis labrusca), Campbell Early (V. labrusca B.), Kyoho (V. labrusca L.) and Meoru (Vitis coignetiae). Pattern recognition methods, such as principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structure discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), showed clear differentiation between wines made from these grape varieties. Metabolites responsible for the differentiation were identified as 2,3-butanediol, glycerol, malate, citrate, tartrate, succinate, lactate, proline, alanine, choline and trigonelline. The PCA score plot of quantitative analysis of targeted profiling data also showed clear separation between the wines. The highest levels of glycerol, 2,3-butanediol, succinate and alcohol were found in Kyoho wines, suggesting higher sugar content in the Kyoho grape berry compared to other grape varieties. Higher contents of citrate and trigonelline in Muscat Bailey A wines, alanine in Campbell Early wines and proline, malate and choline in Meoru wines demonstrated that the metabolites of the wines vary with the grape variety. This study provides insight into the relationship between grape variety and its wine through global and targeted analysis of ¹H NMR spectral data.     

Impact of using Trepat and Monastrell red grape varieties on the volatile and nitrogen composition during the manufacture of rosé Cava sparkling wines

The impact of using Trepat and Monastrell red grape varieties during the manufacture of rosé sparkling Cava wines on the nitrogen and volatile composition compared to a white Cava manufactured with a blend of typical white grape varieties (Xarello: Macabeo: Parellada) has been investigated. The wines were industrially manufactured in a cellar, and the concentrations of outstanding nitrogen compounds and 23 target volatile compounds belonging to different chemical classes were determined in the base wines and in the corresponding Cava wines after 9, 12, 15 and 18 months of aging on lees. After the application of multivariate statistical analysis, the results showed the large effect of the variety employed in the manufacture of Cavas compared to the changes in wine composition due to the aging time. Depending on the composition, Trepat and White Cava wines were more similar than those manufactured with the variety Monastrell. However, the sensory study showed that the two rosé Cava wines had good sensory attributes and even slightly better foam characteristics than the white ones. The sensory study highlighted for the first time the adequacy of using Monastrell red grape variety to manufacture rosé sparkling wines.     

Optimization of blended wine quality through maximization of consumer liking

A mixture design was used to optimize blended Vitis vinifera wines (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Zinfandel) for consumer acceptability. Consumer overall liking values were modeled within an augmented simplex centroid mixture design to determine areas of desirability for each consumer. Two major segments of consumers were identified, with membership mainly dependent upon responses to Zinfandel. Samples were less polarizing when the wines were blended as opposed to remaining as single wines. Three optimized blends were created: for all consumers, segment 1 and segment 2. A subsequent consumer study indicated that optimized blends for each segment were not significantly different from the other wines. However, segment 2 consumers preferred the segment 2 blend to the wine blend optimized across all consumers. The optimized blend across all consumers was the least liked for each segment. Identifying consumer segments can help better optimize products for successful entry into the marketplace. Optimizing a product within a mixture design environment is a useful, efficient technique to understand ingredient interactions and how they affect overall consumer acceptance.