An Assessment of the Double-Notch Shear Test for Interlaminar Shear Characterization of a Unidirectional Graphite/Epoxy under Static and Fatigue Loading

This research explores a modified testing technique for measuring interlaminar shear properties of orthotropic composite materials. An existing test method (double-notched test method) is examined here to characterize the interlaminar shear properties (strength and fatigue life) of a unidirectional ply under both static and fatigue loading conditions. No complicated fixture is required for the testing method which is beneficial for fatigue testing of the materials. The testing method is verified by a finite element technique where an optimized geometry for the specimen is found. AS4/3501-6 graphite/epoxy material is used in this study. The experimental results show that final failure occurs in the gage area for both static and fatigue loading conditions. Moreover, a reasonable amount of scatter for both the static strength and fatigue life is achieved.     

An Assessment of the Double-Notch Shear Test for Interlaminar Shear Characterization of a Unidirectional Graphite/Epoxy under Static and Fatigue Loading

This research explores a modified testing technique for measuring interlaminar shear properties of orthotropic composite materials. An existing test method (double-notched test method) is examined here to characterize the interlaminar shear properties (strength and fatigue life) of a unidirectional ply under both static and fatigue loading conditions. No complicated fixture is required for the testing method which is beneficial for fatigue testing of the materials. The testing method is verified by a finite element technique where an optimized geometry for the specimen is found. AS4/3501-6 graphite/epoxy material is used in this study. The experimental results show that final failure occurs in the gage area for both static and fatigue loading conditions. Moreover, a reasonable amount of scatter for both the static strength and fatigue life is achieved.     

Compressive response of glass–fiber reinforced polymeric composites to increasing compressive strain rates

The utilization of composite materials instead of traditional materials in structural high-speed applications has induced the need for a proper knowledge of dynamic behavior as well as static behavior of them. The material and structural response vary significantly under dynamic loading as compared to static loading conditions. In order to investigate the dynamic responses of composite materials under dynamic loading at various strain rates, special testing machines are needed. Most of the researches in this field are focused on applying real loading and gripping boundary conditions on the testing specimens.The present study is carried out in order to characterize the compressive properties of unidirectional glass–fiber reinforced polymeric composites using a servo-hydraulic testing apparatus at varying strain rates, ranging from 0.001 to 100 s⁻¹. For performing practical tests, a jig and a fixture are designed and manufactured, which could insure the alignment of axial loads on the specimens. During of tests, the performance of the test jig is evaluated. It is found that the designed jig and the fixture perform very well during the test process. The results of the dynamic tests are compared with the results of the static tests carried out on specimens with identical geometry. Based on the experimental results obtained from the tests, empirical functions for the mechanical properties are proposed in terms of strain rates. The results of the study indicate that strain rate has a significant effect on the material response. It is found that the compressive strength and modulus both increased with increasing the strain rate. Also, the results show that the compressive strain to failure is generally insensitive to strain rate.     

单向纤维复合材料的偏轴实验方法开发与评价(英文)

This study presents an integrated method suitable for off-axis tension and compression testing in unidirectional composites,and its application to the testing of in-plane shear characterization.A new rotating-grip test fixture,incorporating the attractive features of the existing pinned-end fixture and hydraulic wedge grips,has been developed.The proposed gripping system consists of two sets of jaw faces,each with a pair of self-aligning bearings that allows for loading in the axial and radial directions.Fi...     

Evaluation of fatigue characteristics for adhesively-bonded composite stepped lap joint

The stepped lap joint for composite structure were manufactured and tested under static and fatigue tensile load. With test results, it was found that crack was initiated at the end of overlap and propagated through the delamination of composite adherend. The average tensile load of the joint increased with the increasing of the number of step and edge angle of adherend, while the peak shear stress at the end of overlap decreased. But the average tensile load did not increase and was converged when the ratio value of joint length against the number of step was less than 6. The fatigue endurance limit of stepped joint was found 30% of static tensile load regardless with the geometry of specimen but the fatigue life of each load level increased significantly with the increasing of the number of step to exceed 6, the ratio value of joint length against the number of step, while the fatigue life decreased significantly when the ratio was less than 6. The ratio 6 was the critical value to be able to increase the static tensile load effectively with the increasing of step number for each joint length. The critical crack propagation distance was observed 5–7 mm from the end of overlap.     

夹层结构剪切试验方法分析与改进

为验证现行夹层结构压剪试验方法对高剪切模量夹层结构的适用性 , 应用有限元分析了影响该试验方法测量精度的因素 , 结果表明加载金属板端部弯曲效应对试验精度有较大影响 , 对高剪切模量芯材的夹层结构影响更甚 , 当剪切模量高于 100 MPa时其误差可超过 6 %。根据对试验系统参数的分析 , 提出了一种改进的压剪试验方法 , 改变加载方式降低弯曲效应 , 对于剪切模量小于 500 MPa的夹层结构 , 可以将弯曲效应引起的误差降低到小于 3 %; 同时发现新的加载方式对夹具尺寸参数变化的灵敏度降低 , 有利于提高试验的可靠性。      

夹层结构纸板压缩剪切夹具的改进及其验证

针对国家标准压缩剪切夹具测试夹多种层结构材料的剪切性能时,需要多个夹具,且夹具制作成本高的不足,对其进行了改进:将与试样粘合的加载板改为组合式结构,这样可以制作多组样品粘合板,测试时只需要组装即可,大大降低了夹具制作成本,提高了试验效率,而且样品准备制作更加方便。 通过试验对改进的组合压缩剪切夹具与标准夹具进行了对比验证,结果表明组合夹具与标准夹具相比所得数据稍有差别,但压缩剪切载荷最大值差别在依10% 以内,提高了夹具的制作精度后,组合夹具完全可以代替标准夹具。     

考虑多组件疲劳损伤的组合梁剩余承载力计算方法及试验验证

针对现行规范中无法计算钢-混凝土组合梁在疲劳后的剩余承载力问题，提出考虑多组件疲劳损伤的组合梁剩余承载力的计算方法。基于材料剩余强度理论，分别引入组合梁各组件（混凝土板、钢梁和栓钉连接件）在疲劳荷载作用下的强度衰减模型；对疲劳荷载作用下的组合梁进行受力分析，得到在既定疲劳荷载幅值下各组件的疲劳应力幅；将各组件的疲劳损伤计入钢-混凝土组合梁剩余抗弯承载力计算中，并考虑疲劳加载过程中组合梁抗剪连接度的变化，建立完全抗剪连接和部分抗剪连接两种情形下的组合梁剩余承载力计算方法，并通过6个试验梁的剩余承载力试验进行验证。研究结果表明:在疲劳荷载作用下，组合梁的抗剪连接度逐渐降低，剩余承载力退化明显且不可忽略。该文建立的组合梁剩余承载力计算方法的计算值与试验值吻合较好，具有良好的计算精度与适用性，补充并完善了现有组合梁承载力的计算方法。     

Structural performance of composite sandwich bridge decks with hybrid GFRP–steel core

This paper presents the static and fatigue performance of composite sandwich bridge decks with hybrid GFRP–steel core. The composite sandwich bridge deck system is comprised of wrapped hybrid core of GFRP grid and multiple steel box cells with upper and lower GFRP facings. Its structural performance under static loading and fatigue loading with a nominal frequency of 5 Hz was evaluated. The responses from laboratory testing were compared with the ANSYS finite element predictions. The failure mode of the proposed composite sandwich bridge deck was more favourable because of the yielding of the steel tube when compared with that of all-GFRP decks. The ultimate failure of the composite sandwich deck panels occurs by shear of the bonded joints between GFRP facings and steel box cells. Results from fatigue load test indicated no loss in stiffness, no signs of de-bonding and no visible signs of deterioration up to 2 million load cycles. The thickness of the composite sandwich deck retaining the similar stiffness may be decreased to some extent when compared with the all-GFRP deck. This paper also presents design of a connection between composite sandwich deck and steel girder.     

Side Clamped Beam (SCB) hinge system for delamination tests in beam-type composite specimens

The experimental study of composite delaminations and adhesive joints is usually carried out using beam-type specimens with bonded metallic fixtures to transfer the applied load. However, bonded joints between the composite specimen and the metallic parts might fail, especially under extreme temperature or fatigue test conditions. Moreover, the quality and alignment of the bonding procedure highly depends on the operator skills and is time consuming. In this paper the design of an improved mechanical hinge is introduced. The new hinge eliminates bonded joints by mechanically clamping the sides of the specimen and avoids the misalignment effects between specimen and fixture. The new system has proven to be easy to use, fast and reliable.     

Experimental and Numerical Post‐buckling Analysis of Thin Aluminium Aeronautical Panels under Shear Load

In this work, a novel multi‐hinged test fixture, which can apply a pure shear load to thin panels, is presented. The new device has been used to perform several experimental tests on the shear behaviour of aluminium alloy panels. Four different test configurations have been considered: stiffened and not stiffened panels, with and without a central rectangular cut‐out. The specimens, made of Al 6082 T6, are tested under shear load boundary conditions up to buckling and post‐buckling occurrence. Furthermore, finite element analyses have been performed in order to simulate the four panel configurations tests. The new test fixture has shown the capability to buckle a panel attaining very large out‐of‐plane displacements, if compared to the outcomes of a traditional picture frame test fixture, under the same external load. Numerical and experimental results are finally compared, showing a satisfactory agreement.     

Investigation of sub-critical fatigue crack growth in FRP/concrete cohesive interface using digital image analysis

The cohesive stress transfer during the sub-critical crack growth associated with the debonding of FRP from concrete under fatigue loading is experimentally investigated using the direct shear test set-up. The study focused on high-amplitude/low-cycle fatigue. The fatigue sub-critical crack growth occurs at a load that is smaller than the static bond capacity of the interface, obtained from monotonic quasi-static loading, and is also associated with a smaller value of the interfacial fracture energy. The strain distribution during debonding is obtained using digital image correlation. The results indicate that the strain distribution along the FRP during fatigue is similar to the strain distribution during debonding under monotonic quasi-static loading. The cohesive crack model and the shape of the strain distribution adopted for quasi-static monotonic loading is indirectly proven to be adequate to describe the stress transfer during fatigue loading. The length of the stress transfer zone during fatigue is observed to be smaller than the cohesive zone of the interfacial crack under quasi-static monotonic loading. The strain distribution across the width of the FRP sheet is not altered during and by fatigue loading. A new formulation to predict the debonding crack growth during fatigue is proposed.     

Fatigue behaviour of the bond interface between carbon fibre‐reinforced polymer sheets and concrete

Externally bonded carbon fibre‐reinforced polymers (CFRPs) have been applied to retrofit and strengthen civil structures. In this study, four‐point bending beams were manufactured and tested to examine the fatigue behaviour of the CFRP–concrete interface. The results indicated that the specimens exhibited debonding failure in the concrete beneath the adhesive layer under static loading. However, when cyclic loads were imposed on the small beams, debonding failure may occur in the adhesive layer. Moreover, fitting expressions were proposed to predict the shear stress–slip relationship between the CFRP sheets and concrete and the flexural strength of the CFRP‐strengthened beams under static loads, and good agreement with the test data was obtained. Finally, a fatigue life prediction model was also presented to capture the fatigue life of the CFRP–concrete interface under cyclic loads. The calculation results showed that the fatigue strength of the CFRP–concrete bond interface was approximately 65% of the ultimate load capacity.     

复杂面内应力状态下平面编织高铝纤维增强氧化铝基复合材料强度及疲劳寿命预测方法

针对平面编织氧化铝基复合材料提出了一种复杂面内应力状态下的强度准则和疲劳寿命预测方法。通过拉伸、压缩及纯剪切试验,分别获得了材料的静强度指标。考虑材料拉、压性能的差异和面内拉-剪联合作用对材料强度的影响机制,提出了修正的Hoffman强度理论。采用该强度理论预测得到的偏轴拉伸强度与试验结果基本一致,偏差不超过10%。开展了偏轴角θ=0°、15°、30°、45°,应力比R=0.1,频率f=10 Hz的拉伸疲劳试验,试验结果表明随着偏轴角的增加,相同轴向拉伸载荷下的疲劳寿命逐渐降低。由于面内剪切应力分量的作用,疲劳失效由纤维主导逐渐过渡到纤维和基体共同主导的模式。基于单轴疲劳寿命曲线,采用Broutman-Sahu剩余强度模型表征剩余强度随疲劳循环次数的变化规律,结合剩余强度演化模型和修正的Hoffman强度理论,提出了一种面内复杂载荷条件下的疲劳寿命预测模型,并引入疲劳剪切损伤影响因子表征拉-剪应力联合作用对材料疲劳行为的影响。采用本文提出的疲劳寿命预测模型,预测不同偏轴角拉伸疲劳寿命,预测结果与试验结果基本一致,偏差在1倍寿命范围内。比较结果表明在给定应力比、温度和疲劳载荷频率条件下,该疲劳寿命预测模型可以用来预测平面编织氧化铝基复合材料拉-剪复杂面内载荷条件下疲劳寿命。      

On the mixed Mode II/III fatigue threshold behaviour for aluminium alloys 2014‐T6 and 7075‐T6

This paper describes an investigation into the fatigue threshold behaviour of two structural aluminium aerospace alloys, Al 2014‐T6 and Al 7075‐T6, when subjected to Mode II, Mode III and mixed Mode II/III loading. A unique four‐point shear loading test rig was employed to cyclically load sharply edge‐notched square bar specimens using an increasing load technique. The main aim of the work has been to generate Mode II–Mode III interaction diagrams for the fatigue threshold in each case, in order to facilitate improved design procedures for components fabricated from these alloys, which are susceptible to fatigue cracking under predominantly shear type loading. Aircraft are subjected to structural loads consisting of: pressurization, tension/compression, bending, shear and torsion, both on the ground and in flight. Representative fatigue fracture surfaces have been examined using scanning electron microscopy.     

空间刚架结构钢-混结合段疲劳性能试验研究

为了解空间刚架结构钢-混结合段的疲劳性能,按照几何、物理及边界相似准则设计了1∶2的大比例试验模型,进行了设计寿命期内疲劳加载,测试了疲劳加载过程中钢-混结合段结构主要构件以及焊缝、剪力键的应力及变形情况。试验结果显示:空间刚架结构钢-混结合段在疲劳荷载作用过程中的应力水平较低,应力分布基本无变化,钢与混凝土相对滑移量很小;疲劳荷载作用后钢结构、混凝土结构无表观裂纹,超声波探伤结果表明疲劳荷载作用后钢结构焊缝无超标缺陷;结合段顶部钢与混凝土之间的界面粘结被破坏,但由于剪力键的作用,钢与混凝土的最大相对滑移量为0.036mm;该空间刚架结构钢-混结合段具有良好的疲劳性能。最后从疲劳性能的角度对钢-混结合段的合理构造设计进行了讨论。     

Joint performance of the glass fiber reinforced polypropylene leaf spring

Commercial utilization of the composite leaf springs in the suspension application is significantly decided by its eye end joint performance. Present work attempts to design and evaluate the performance of double bolted end joint for thermoplastic composite leaf spring. Injection molded 20% glass fiber reinforced polypropylene leaf springs were considered for the joint strength evaluation. Servo hydraulic test facility is utilized to evaluate the static and fatigue performance of the bolted joint. Various bolt sizes were utilized for the joint and its performances were evaluated under static loading condition to understand the effect of fit between bolt and its hole of the joints. Ultimate bearing strength of the joint is found to decrease with the increase in the clearance between bolt and part hole. Joints were subjected to various amplitudes of completely reversed fatigue loads to evaluate the endurance strength. Load–deflection hysteresis plot of the joint under fatigue conditions is continuously measured and used as the bearing damage index of the joint. Inspection of the bearing surface tested under static and fatigue loading condition revealed severe matrix deformation and fibrillation. In spite of unidirectional load being acted at the joint, curved nature of the bearing surface induces bi-axial stresses, which results in severe matrix fibrillation at the bearing surface. Failure morphology under static conditions shows net-tension beside the bearing damage. Failure morphology under fatigue condition revealed net-tension, and shear-out failures besides the bearing damages.     

A Finite Element and Experimental Analysis of Composite T-Joints Used in Wind Turbine Blades

In this study, a finite element failure model was created using ABAQUS to determine the location where delamination is initiated and its subsequent propagation. The effect of fibre-reinforced structures on delamination behaviour was studied. The composite T-joints were made of glass fabric infused with epoxy resin using a vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding technique. The veil layer and 3D weave techniques were employed to improve the properties in the through-thickness direction that can delay or prevent delamination when in service. All the pull-out tensile tests were conducted in an Instron testing machine using a specially designed test fixture. The 3D weave T-joints were found to have improved performance under both static and fatigue loading. Increasing the static properties increases fatigue life performance. The location for the through-thickness reinforcement plays an important role in extending fatigue life of the T-joints.     

Damage behaviour of laminated composites during fatigue loading

This study deals with the modelling of damage evolution in the carbon/epoxy laminated composites under static and fatigue loading. A cumulative damage model is developed on the basis of damage evolution due to static and fatigue during cyclic loading. A continuum damage mechanics (CDM)‐based damage model coupling with the micromechanics has been utilized to predict the fatigue behaviour of laminate composites. A multicriterion approach has been introduced to predict the damage behaviour in the longitudinal, transverse, and shear direction at the ply scale. Extensive experimental results on T300/EPL1012 carbon/epoxy laminates are prepared to characterize under static and fatigue loading and to evaluate the proposed model in different conditions. The obtained results show that at the beginning of the cyclic loading, the damage grows suddenly and increases until final failure, which justifies the proposed method is able to predict the evolution of the damage due to static and fatigue loading separately during cyclic loading. The obtained results show that considering damage due to static loading leads to more accurate results, particularly in low‐cycle fatigue.     

On the notch sensitivity of flax fibre metal laminates under static and fatigue loading

Damage progression and failure characteristics of open‐hole flax fibre aluminium laminate (flax‐FML) specimens subjected to quasi‐static tensile or tension‐tension fatigue loading were experimentally investigated. Notched and unnotched flax‐FML composites exhibited brittle fracture with little or no fibre pull‐out and minimal delamination at the aluminium/adhesive interface. The flax‐FMLs were tested to failure under tension‐tension fatigue loading conditions (R ratio of 0.1; frequency of 10 Hz; applied fatigue stresses ranging between 30% and 80% of the respective ultimate tensile strength values). The fatigue cycles to failure decreased with the increase in the applied fatigue stress and hole diameter. A phenomenological modelling technique was developed to evaluate the fatigue life of an open‐hole flax‐FML composite. Fatigue tests on specimens subjected to a maximum load equivalent to 35% of the respective tensile failure strength were interrupted at around 85% of the corresponding fatigue life. The accumulated fatigue damage in these specimens was characterised using X‐ray computed tomography. For benchmarking purposes, the fatigue performance and related damage progression in the flax‐FML composite were compared with those of the glass‐FMLs.