贸易自由化对行业内工资不平等的影响——来自中国制造业的证据

本文使用1998—2007年的中国制造业企业数据检验了贸易自由化对71个制造业的行业内工资不平等的影响。实证分析得到的基本结论是产成品进口关税和有效保护率的下降显著地降低了行业内工资不平等程度。另外,外资开放度的提高对收入分配均衡有着不利影响,而出口导向程度的增强和民营企业的发展有着积极的收入分配效应。采用不同的工资不平等度量指标并不会对基本结论产生影响。贸易自由化的作用机制在于其提高了企业生存门槛,降低了行业内生产率差异,进而反映为行业内工资差距的减小。本文的研究发现表明贸易自由化对我国解决收入分配不平等问题具有重要意义。     

贸易自由化与性别工资差距的关系研究文献综述与评价

在贸易自由化进程中,许多发展中国家的相对工资差距不断拉大,这使传统赫克歇尔－俄林－萨缪尔森理论框架的适用性受到质疑,学者们开始由研究传统理论的假设条件转向研究对象的微观化。综合阐述了贸易自由化与性别工资差距领域的国内外研究成果并对其作简要评价,提出未来在此领域的研究应注重拓展理论研究视角、改进研究方法和扩展研究内容。     

进口竞争、管理者激励与企业内部收入差距

完善分配制度，缩小不同群体间的收入差距是逐步实现共同富裕的重要内容。本文从企业内部管理层和普通员工之间工资差距的角度，以中国加入世界贸易组织为准自然实验，采用双重差分法考察了最终品关税下降引致的进口竞争对收入分配的影响和作用机制。研究结果表明，进口竞争显著提升了企业管理层的平均工资，同时降低了普通员工的平均工资，从而扩大了企业内部工资收入差距，这一结论在一系列稳健性检验后仍然成立；机制检验结果显示，进口竞争增加了管理者激励，并通过绩效工资和企业组织结构调整两个渠道影响企业内部的收入差距；异质性分析结果显示，进口竞争对规模较大企业、国有企业以及治理环境差的企业内部收入差距的影响更大；进一步研究表明，进口竞争增加了国有企业和治理不善企业的管理层与企业业绩无关的超额工资。本文结论为中国提高对外开放水平以及优化收入分配结构提供了一定的启发。     

我国贸易自由化对劳动者就业与报酬的影响

伴随着我国贸易自由化程度的加深,劳动者报酬占国民收入比重持续下降,有学者据此认为我国的对外贸易导致了这一比重的下降。本文首先拓宽了研究视角,选择了从劳动者就业与报酬这两个方面来看待劳动者福利的增损,而不是简单地以工资涨跌来衡量劳动者福利水平的变化,并定义用以衡量劳动者就业与报酬的一个综合性指标为劳动者收入比例。其次本文通过放松古典贸易理论的假设条件,从理论上分析了劳动力市场存在失业或者存在新增劳动力情形下,贸易自由化对劳动者福利的影响。理论分析的结论为:我国劳动力市场的特殊性,干扰了贸易自由化对劳动者工资的提高,使贸易自由化对我国劳动者福利的改善形式发生了变化,贸易通过促进就业的增长来提高劳动者收入比例。最后本文以制造业部门的面板数据做实证分析,检验的结果与理论分析的结果大体一致,我国贸易自由化的确促进了劳动者收入比例的提高,但是这种提高来自于就业人数的扩张,而非工资的大幅提高。     

市场潜力、贸易自由化与地区工资差距

在新经济地理学的框架下,本文构建理论模型研究市场潜力和贸易自由化与地区工资差距的关系,根据中国1993－2012年的省际面板数据,采用工具变量二阶段最小二乘法实证检验市场潜力和贸易自由化对地区工资水平的影响效应。研究结果表明,市场潜力和贸易自由化对地区工资水平均有显著为正的影响作用,且二者还存在替代关系。进一步的分析发现,贸易自由化程度较高的沿海地区,其市场潜力对地区工资水平的影响较小,而在内陆地区则恰好相反。     

贸易开放对电子设备制造业性别工资差距的影响

为了深入探究贸易开放对性别工资差距的影响,本文就外贸依存度、进口依存度和出口依存度对电子设备制造业性别工资差距的影响进行回归分析,还研究了不同企业所有制下影响的差异性.结果表明,贸易开放扩大了电子设备制造业的性别工资差距.就不同的企业所有制而言,贸易开放显著扩大了国有企业、私营企业中的性别工资差距,缩小了外资企业和集体...     

进口竞争与企业内部工资差距

本文采用世界银行2005年投资环境调查数据库、WTO关税数据库、中国工业企业数据库和海关贸易数据库等数据,全面系统分析了进口竞争对我国企业内部工资差距的影响。研究结果表明:随着我国比较优势的显著变化,进口竞争能够使我国企业内部工资差距扩大,而中间品进口竞争则会缩小我国企业内部工资差距。同时,本文还发现,出口增加将促使我国企业内部工资差距的扩大。     

企业异质性、劳动力异质性与技能工资差距

文章提出研究假设,构建理论模型,揭示了企业异质性、劳动力异质性对技能工资差距的影响机理;基于中国工业企业微观数据,对企业异质性、劳动力异质性与技能工资差距的关系进行了实证研究。研究结果表明：(1)企业异质性对技能工资差距有显著的影响。其中企业绩效越好、创新能力越强、生产率水平越高、外资参与度越高,则技能工资差距越大。出口企业与体制内企业存在明显的技能工资溢价。(2)劳动力异质性对技能工资差距有显著的影响。其中男性占比越高、受教育年限越长、技能型员工占比与技术型员工占比越高,则技能工资差距越大;人力资本异质性进一步扩大了性别技能工资差距。(3)劳动力异质性与企业异质性交互项对技能工资差距有显著的影响。其中技能型员工占比扩大了狭义技能工资差距,技术型员工占比进一步扩大了广义技能工资差距,广义技能工资差距大于狭义技能工资差距。在此基础上提出了具有一定参考价值的政策建议,并对未来的研究方向进行展望。     

我国企业人力资本所有者持股的模式选择

随着古典企业制度向现代工商企业制度的演进,使物力资本所有权垄断模式出现了动摇,经营管理者作为一种稀缺的人力资本,开始分享物力资本所有者的权利。尤其是现代公司制度和证券市场的形成,使企业所有权人的范围从物质资本所有者发展到大多数管理人员和普通员工,人力资本产权形式也发生了巨大的变化,如认股期权最早只授予少数经理人员,现在转向高级员工乃至普通员工,经理期权(ESO)、员工所有权(ESOP)等激励形式也在不断推行。我国企业人力资本产权实践现状分析1、人力资本所有者的收益差距较大据国家统计局2000年对中国四万多个城镇居民…     

对外贸易与我国的性别工资差距

对外贸易对性别工资差距的影响是一个亟待研究的新领域。本文利用2002年和2007年中国家庭住户收入调查数据(CHIP),针对对外贸易对我国城镇性别工资差距的影响进行了实证分析。研究结果表明:我国对外贸易的发展扩大了城镇男性和女性之间的工资差距。这个结论与新古典理论不符,而与非新古典理论相符。具体来看:(1)从外贸依存度来看,进口贸易依存度和进出口总的贸易依存度对性别工资差距的影响都是正效应且显著,进口依存度对性别工资差距的影响效应最大。(2)从外贸方式来看,与加工贸易相比,一般贸易的进口依存度和进出口总的依存度对性别工资差距的影响效应要大且显著,一般贸易的进口对性别工资差距的影响显著且效应较大。(3)从贸易价格来看,虽然贸易价格与性别工资差距的关系都表现为负效应,但是,与总体贸易、加工贸易的价格变化相比,只有一般贸易的进口价格和进出口总价格对性别工资差距的影响是显著的。(4)贸易条件变化对性别工资差距的影响为正效应,但是,都不显著。     

Fairness,trade, and inequality

We develop a model of international trade between two symmetric countries that features inter-group inequality between managers and workers, and also intra-group inequality within each of those two groups. Individuals are heterogeneous with respect to their managerial ability, and firms run by more able managers have a higher productivity level and make higher profits. There is rent sharing at the firm level due to fair wage preferences of workers, and hence firms with higher profits pay higher wages in equilibrium in order to elicit their workers' full effort. We show that in this framework international trade leads to a self-selection of the best firms into export status, with exporting firms having to pay a wage premium. Aggregate welfare increases, but there is also larger inequality along multiple dimensions: Involuntary unemployment and income inequality between managers and workers increase, and so does inequality within these two subgroups of individuals, as measured by the respective Gini coefficients.     

Education bias of trade liberalization and wage inequality in developing countries

The aim of this article is to examine the impact of increased trade on wage inequality in developing countries, and whether a higher human capital stock moderates this effect. We look at the skilled–unskilled wage differential. When better educated societies open up their economies, increased trade is likely to induce less inequality on impact because the supply of skills better matches demand. But greater international exposure also brings about technological diffusion, further raising skilled labour demand. This may raise wage inequality, in contrast to the initial egalitarian level effect of human capital. We attempt to measure these two opposing forces. We also employ a broad set of indicators to measure trade liberalization policies as well as general openness, which is an outcome, and not a policy variable. We further examine what type of education most reduces inequality. Our findings suggest that countries with a higher level of initial human capital do well on the inequality front, but human capital which accrues through the trade liberalization channel has inegalitarian effects. Our results also have implications for the speed at which trade policies are liberalized, the implication being that better educated nations should liberalize faster.     

Trade liberalization and rising wage inequality in Latin America: Reconciliation with HOS theory

The paper puts forward the hypothesis that the transitory effects of trade liberalization on wage inequality can differ from the long-run outcome. In cases where the HOS theory predicts a decline in wage inequality in the long run, a temporary rise can, nevertheless, occur due to (i) the asymmetries in the speed of contraction in the import sector and expansion in other sectors, and (ii) the capital-skill complementarity in production. The asymmetric contraction and expansion causes a transitory capital accumulation that boosts the relative and the real wage of skilled labor due to capital-skill complementarity. Although the long-run HOS fundamentals are, therefore, dominated in the short run by the transient effects arising due to capital-skill complementarity, the observed rise in wage inequality is nonetheless consistent with the HOS theory appropriately extended to a dynamic setting.     

Globalization and wage inequality: Evidence from urban China

This paper examines the impact of globalization on wage inequality using Chinese Urban Household Survey data from 1988 to 2008. Exploring two trade liberalization shocks, Deng Xiaoping's Southern Tour in 1992 and China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, we analyze whether regions more exposed to globalization experienced larger changes in wage inequality than less-exposed regions. Contrary to the predictions of the Heckscher–Ohlin model, we find that the WTO accession was significantly associated with rising wage inequality. We further show that both trade liberalizations contributed to within-region inequality by raising the returns to education (the returns to high school after 1992 and the returns to college after 2001).     

Trade, wages, and the political economy of trade protection: evidence from the Colombian trade reforms

Worker industry affiliation plays a crucial role in how trade policy affects wages in many trade models. Yet, most research has focused on how trade policy affects wages by altering the economy-wide returns to a specific worker characteristic (i.e., skill or education) rather than through worker industry affiliation. This paper exploits drastic trade liberalizations in Colombia in the 1980s and 1990s to investigate the relationship between protection and industry wage premiums. We relate wage premiums to trade policy in an empirical framework that accounts for the political economy of trade protection. Accounting for time-invariant political economy factors is critical. When we do not control for unobserved time-invariant industry characteristics, we find that workers in protected sectors earn less than workers with similar observable characteristics in unprotected sectors. Allowing for industry fixed effects reverses the result: trade protection increases relative wages. This positive relationship persists when we instrument for tariff changes. Our results are in line with short- and medium-run models of trade where labor is immobile across sectors or, alternatively, with the existence of industry rents that are reduced by trade liberalization. In the context of the current debate on the rising income inequality in developing countries, our findings point to a source of disparity beyond the well-documented rise in the economy-wide skill premium: because tariff reductions were proportionately larger in sectors employing a high fraction of less-skilled workers, the decrease in the wage premiums in these sectors affected such workers disproportionately.     

Trade liberalization and the allocation of labor between households and markets in a poor country

We consider the relationship between relative price changes and the allocation of labor between households and the formal wage labor market in the context of Vietnam's liberalization of its rice trade in the 1990s. Many individuals in poor economies work within their own household rather than in formal labor markets. We find that larger rice price increases in a community are associated with declines in hours adults devote to work within the household and increases in time spent in the wage labor market. We also observe increased specialization in household economic activities accompanying these shifts in hours towards wage work. Our results are consistent with the idea that a growth in the extent of the market shifts production and labor from households to markets during development, thereby inducing gains from specialization. Thus, the reallocation of labor between households and markets in response to a trade liberalization might be an important component in understanding the link between trade and growth in very poor economies, currently the focus of the Doha WTO negotiation round.     

贸易自由化对中国城镇劳动力市场性别歧视的影响

贸易自由化既可缩小也可扩大性别工资差。绝大多数实证研究,例如Oosdendorp(2004),都采用的是较宏观的行业加总数据,并着重于职业性别工资差。然而,行业加总的职业工资不能控制教育水平和经验变量,因此很难判断性别工资差的变化到底来自个人特征因素还是贸易自由化。文章运用中国城镇居民家庭的微观数据,运用difference-in-difference的方法,在消除了不随时间改变的固定效应和随时间变化的系统冲击的基础上,检验了1988年到1995年中国第一次贸易自由化兴起时期,贸易开放度的变化对不同教育水平的性别工资差的影响。结果显示,这一时期贸易开放度和性别工资差之间的相互关系主要来源于进口开放度的变化:随着进口开放度的上升,低教育人群的性别工资差显著扩大,而高教育人群的性别工资差却呈现相反趋势。出口开放度的上升对低教育人群的性别工资差没有显著影响,但与进口开放度的上升一样,它缩小了高教育人群的性别工资差。     

Openness,inequality and poverty: Endowments matter

Using tariffs as a measure of openness, this paper finds consistent evidence that the conditional effects of trade liberalization on inequality are correlated with relative factor endowments. Trade liberalization, measured by changes in tariff revenues, is associated with increases in inequality in countries well-endowed with highly skilled workers and capital or with workers that have very low education levels. Similar, although less robust, results are also obtained when decile data are used instead of the usual Gini coefficients. Taken together, the results are strongly supportive of the factor-proportions theory of trade and suggest that trade liberalization in poor countries where the share of the labor force with little education is high raises inequality. Simulation results also suggest that relatively small changes in inequality as measured by aggregate measures of inequality, like the Gini coefficient, are magnified when estimates are carried out using decile data.     

The impacts of trade liberalization on informal labor markets: A theoretical and empirical evaluation of the Brazilian case

Following trade liberalization, several developing countries experienced a sharp increase in the share of informal manufacturing employment. In this paper, I examine the impacts of trade liberalization on the labor markets of a small open economy, in an environment in which tariffs affect firms' payroll tax compliance decisions. I demonstrate that a reduction in domestic import tariffs reduces the average formal wage and show that the direction of the effect on the share of informal employment depends on the initial labor market conditions. A cut in trading partner import tariffs decreases the share of domestic informal employment and increases the average formal wage. I confirm the model's principal findings empirically, using data from the 1989–2001 Brazilian trade liberalization episode. I find the results robust to endogeneity and self-selection concerns, which are addressed, respectively, using instrumental variable and switching regression approaches.