Constitutive modeling of flow behavior of precipitation-hardened AA7022-T6 aluminum alloy at elevated temperature

The thermomechanical behavior of precipitation-hardened aluminum alloy AA7022-T6 was studied using isothermal compression at temperatures of 623−773 K and strain rates of 0.01−1 s⁻¹. The experimental results indicated that dynamic recrystallization (DRX) is a predominant hot deformation mechanism, especially at elevated temperatures and low strain rates. The modified Johnson−Cook (J−C) and the strain compensated Arrhenius-type models were developed to predict the hot flow behavior under different deformation conditions. The correlation coefficients of modified J−C model and the strain compensated Arrhenius-type models were 0.9914 and 0.9972, respectively, their average relative errors (ARE) were 6.074% and 4.465%, respectively, and their root mean square errors (RMSE) were 10.611 and 1.665 MPa, respectively, indicating that the strain compensated Arrhenius-type model can predict the hot flow stress of AA7022-T6 aluminum alloy with an appropriate accuracy.     

Optimization of deformation parameters of dynamic recrystallization for 7055 aluminum alloy by cellular automaton

In order to simulate the microstructure evolution during hot compressive deformation, models of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) by cellular automaton (CA) method for 7055 aluminum alloy were established. The hot compression tests were conducted to obtain material constants, and models of dislocation density, nucleation rate and recrystallized grain growth were fitted by least square method. The effects of strain, strain rate, deformation temperature and initial grain size on microstructure variation were studied. The results show that the DRX plays a vital role in grain refinement in hot deformation. Large strain, high temperature and small strain rate are beneficial to grain refinement. The stable size of recrystallized grain is not concerned with initial grain size, but depends on strain rate and temperature. Kinetic characteristic of DRX process was analyzed. By comparison of simulated and experimental flow stress–strain curves and metallographs, it is found that the established CA models can accurately predict the microstructure evolution of 7055 aluminum alloy during hot compressive deformation.     

Dynamic recrystallization kinetics of as-cast AZ91D alloy

The flow behavior and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) behavior of an as-cast AZ91D alloy were investigated systematically by applying the isothermal compression tests in temperature range of 220–380 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s^?1. The effect of temperature and strain rate on the DRX behavior was discussed. The results indicate that the nucleation and growth of dynamic recrystallized grains easily occur at higher temperatures and lower strain rates. To evaluate the evolution of dynamic recrystallization, the DRX kinetics model was proposed based on the experimental data of true stress-true strain curves. It was revealed that the volume fraction of dynamic recrystallized grains increased with increasing strain in terms of S-curves. A good agreement between the proposed DRX kinetics model and microstructure observation results validates the accuracy of DRX kinetics model for AZ91D alloy.     

热变形温度对7055铝合金热处理组织和力学性能的影响(英文)

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟试验机对7055铝合金进行多道次热压缩试验,并对热压缩试样进行T6热处理。采用TEM、OM观察热压缩试样与热处理试样的组织形貌,并对热处理7055-T6试样进行拉伸试验,研究变形温度对7055铝合金多道次热压缩后组织、热处理后的显微组织与力学性能的影响。结果表明:热变形温度不仅影响多道次热压缩后试样的组织,而且显著影响该合金热处理后的组织和力学性能。在本试验条件范围内,随着温度的升高,经多道次热压缩后试样的晶粒长宽比先减小然后增加,位错密度降低,亚晶尺寸增加,热压缩过程中发生再结晶;热处理后合金中再结晶晶粒体积分数先降低后增加。再结晶体积分数越小,合金的强度越高。当温度为400°C时,再结晶体积分数最小,约为45%,并且合金的抗拉强度和伸长率达到最大值。     

Flow characteristics and constitutive modeling for elevated temperature deformation of a high Nb containing TiAl alloy

The hot deformation behavior of a high Nb containing TiAl alloy with a nominal composition of Ti–42Al–8Nb–(W, B, Y) was investigated at temperatures ranging from 1000 °C to 1150 °C and strain rates from 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 0.5 s⁻¹ on a Gleeble thermo-simulation machine. The work hardening regime and flow softening behavior of the alloy were analyzed in detail. The results revealed that the onset of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was quite easy for the present alloy, whereas the dynamic recovery (DRV) was impeded during the hot deformation. The DRX kinetics was studied by Avrami-type equation. The low Avrami exponents of the proposed equation indicate a lower recrystallization rate compared to ordinary metals and alloys. Based on the classical hyperbolic-sine law and the kinematics of DRX, the constitutive equations of the work hardening-recovery period (i.e. flow stress before the peak) and flow softening process (i.e. flow curve after the peak stress) were established for the present alloy, respectively. Comparisons between the experimental and calculated results revealed that except the severely cracked specimens, the stress–strain curves predicted by the established model are in good agreement with experimental results.     

ZL270LF铝合金的热变形行为与组织演变

通过热压缩实验研究了ZL270LF铝合金在变形量为70%,温度为300~550 ℃,应变速率为 0.01~10 s^-1范围的热变形行为,建立了流变应力本构方程模型,绘制出了二维热加工图,确定了最佳热加工区域,采用电子背散射衍射（EBSD）和透射电子显微镜（TEM）技术研究了该合金的组织演变规律。结果表明：ZL270LF铝合金的流变应力随变形温度的升高和应变速率的降低而降低,热变形激活能为309.05 kJ/mol,最优热加工区为温度470~530 ℃、应变速率为0.01~1 s^-1。该合金在热变形过程中存在3种不同的DRX机制,即连续动态再结晶（CDRX）、不连续动态再结晶（DDRX）和几何动态再结晶（GDRX）,其中CDRX是ZL270LF铝合金动态再结晶的主要机制。     

AZ31镁合金位错密度模型及热压缩的微观组织预测

通过热压缩实验研究AZ31镁合金挤压杆料在变形温度300、400和500℃,应变速率0.1、0.01和0.001 s^?1条件下的流变行为,基于Arrhenius方程建立流变应力的本构模型,其中激活能Q为132.45 kJ/mol,应变硬化系数n为4.67。依据AZ31镁合金高温变形中的动态再结晶(Dynamic recrystallization,DRX)机理和位错密度演化规律,建立宏观变形?微观组织多尺度耦合的位错密度模型,该模型能够反映热加工过程中的加工硬化、动态回复(Dynamic recovery,DRV)、低角晶界(Low angle grain boundaries,LAGB)和高角晶界(High angle grain boundaries,HAGB)等机制的交互作用。利用ABAQUS的VUSDFLD子程序进行热压缩过程的有限元模拟,获得DRX分数、LAGB和HAGB位错密度的数值模拟结果以及压缩载荷。结果表明:实验载荷与模拟结果基本吻合,本文提出的AZ31镁合金位错密度模型是合理的。     

BT25钛合金β相区动态再结晶行为及数值模拟

利用Gleeble-3500型热模拟试验机对BT25钛合金进行单道次等温压缩实验,分别采用Najafizadeh-Jonas加工硬化率模型和Cingara-McQueen流变应力模型研究了合金在变形温度1040~1100℃,应变速率0.001~1 s^-1和最大压下率为60%的条件下动态再结晶的临界条件,分析真应力-真应变曲线,计算加工硬化率并建立了临界应变模型;同时通过线性回归法计算材料参数,构建JMAK动态再结晶动力学方程,并采用该模型模拟了BT25钛合金在热变形过程中动态再结晶行为。结果显示:流动应力表现出对应变速率和变形温度非常敏感;高温和低应变速率有利于DRX发生;有限元模型对DRX体积分数的预测误差在10%以内。该模型具有良好的预测能力,为工业生产中塑性变形和微观结构的预测提供了有效的工具。     

Strain-dependent constitutive analysis of hot deformation and hot workability of T4-treated ZK60 magnesium alloy

The hot deformation behavior of T4-treated ZK60 magnesium alloy was investigated in a compression test conducted with a thermo-mechanical simulator at a temperature range of 523 K to 673 K and a strain rate of 0.001 s^?1 to 1 s^?1. The results show that the flow stress increases as the deformation temperature decreases and the strain rate increases. Strain-dependent constitutive relationships were developed using regression method and artificial neural network, and good agreements between the experimentally measured values and the predicted ones were achieved. The work hardening analysis and onset of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) were investigated. The processing map reveals a domain of DRX at the temperature range of 620–673 K and strain rate range of 0.001–0.01 s^?1, with its peak efficiency of 32% at 623 K and 0.001 s^?1, which are the optimum values of the parameters for hot working of the T4-treated ZK60 alloy. The strain level has a great effect on the processing maps and lower temperatures and higher strain rates should be avoided during hot working processes. DRX model indicates that DRX of ZK60 alloy is controlled by the rate of nucleation, which is slower than the rate of migration.     

AerMet100超高强钢在热加工过程中的动态再结晶模型研究

为了准确预测AerMet100超高强钢在热加工过程中的微观组织演变,通过系列等温热压缩试验分析了合金在温度为800~1040℃、应变速率为0.01~10s-1、变形量为15~60%的热变形行为,并建立了动态再结晶(DRX)体积分数和晶粒尺寸的DRX模型。通过计算获得了AerMet100钢本构模型中的Zener-Hollomon参数,用于建立DRX模型。通过建立的DRX模型定量预测了热变形参数对合金微观组织演变的影响,结合微观组织观察发现,高温低应变速率和较大的变形程度有利于DRX充分发生,使组织细化和均匀化。模型预测结果与实验结果吻合较好,验证了所建立的DRX模型的准确性。结果表明,建立的DRX模型可以定量预测AerMet100钢在不同变形参数下进行热加工时的微观组织演变规律。     

7055铝合金高温塑性变形的热模拟研究

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟机研究了7055铝合金在应变速率为0.01、0.1和1s-1、变形温度为300～450℃,最大真应变为0.7条件下的高温塑性变形行为,分析了合金流变应力与应变速率、变形温度之间的关系,计算了合金高温塑性变形时的变形激活能,并观察了合金变形过程中显微组织变化情况。结果表明:合金在热变形过程中流变应力随温度的升高而减小,随应变速率的增加而增大,7055铝合金的高温塑性变形行为可以用包含Zener-Hollomon参数的流变应力方程进行描述。该合金在实验条件范围内热变形以动态回复为主要软化机制并伴随极少量的再结晶发生。     

Constitutive analysis and processing map for hot working of a Ni-Cu alloy

The hot deformation behavior of a Ni-Cu alloy was studied using hot compression testing in the temperature range of 950 °C–1150 °C and at strain rates of 0.001 s^?1-1 s^?1. Flow curves at low strain rates, up to 0.01 s^?1, were typical of DRX characterized by a single peak, while at higher strain rates, the typical form of a DRX flow curve was not observed. The power-law constitutive equation was used to correlate flow stress to strain rate and temperature, and the apparent activation energy of hot deformation was determined to be about 462.4 kJ/mol. The peak strain and stress were related to the Zener-Hollomon parameter and the modeling formula was proposed. The dependence of flow stress to the Z changed at ln Z=38.5, which was considered to be a critical condition for the change in the mechanism of dynamic recrystallization. The efficiency of power dissipation was determined to be between 10–35 percent at different deformation conditions. According to the dynamic material model, stable flow was predicted for the studied temperature and strain rate ranges. Highly serrated grain boundaries at low strain rates were considered to be a reason for the occurrence of continuous dynamic recrystallization. On the contrary, at high strain rates, equiaxed grain structure was attributed to the typical discontinuous dynamic recrystallization.     

Processing map and hot deformation behavior of squeeze cast 6082 aluminum alloy

The hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of 6082 aluminum alloy fabricated through squeeze casting (SC) under different pressures were studied. The alloy was subjected to hot compression tests and 3D hot processing maps were established. The microstructure evolution was studied by optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). It is found that more dynamic recrystallization (DRX) grains are generated during the deformation of the specimen fabricated under higher SC pressure. At high temperature the effect of SC pressure on microstructure evolution weakens due to the dissolution of second phase particles. In addition, uneven second phase particles in specimens fabricated under higher SC pressure compressed with low temperature and middle strain rate would result in flow localization instability. Finally, the optimum deformation conditions for the 6082 aluminum alloy fabricated by SC were obtained at the temperatures of 430?500 °C and the strain rates of 0.01?1 s^?1.     

低压铸造ZL114A铝合金微观组织模拟

在大量实验数据统计分析的基础上,建立了低压铸造ZL114A铝合金形核模型,得到了相关热力学,动力学参数.采用了一种改进的Celluar Automaton方法耦合有限差分法对合金的宏观凝固及微观组织演化过程进行了数值模拟.考虑了固/液界面的溶质再分布、微观固相分数、曲率以及各向异性因素.利用阶梯铸件研究了不同冷却速度下晶粒度、二次枝晶臂间距以及共晶组织含量的变化规律,并将模拟值与实验值进行了对比验证.     

Effect of Initial Grain Size on the Dynamic Recrystallization of Hot Deformation for 3003 Aluminum Alloy

The 3003 aluminum alloys with four different initial grain sizes were deformed by isothermal compression in the range of deformation temperature 300–500 °C at strain rate 0.01–10.0 s^?1 with Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator. The results show that the smaller the initial grain size of the alloy, the greater the required deformation resistance, and the smaller the peak strain, which is conducive to the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization (DRX). The DRX critical strain increases with the decrease of the deformation temperature or the increase of the strain rate, and the DRX volume fraction increases with the decrease of the strain rate and the increase of the deformation temperature. The average grain size of 3003 aluminum alloy after deformation is smaller than that before deformation. The smaller the initial grain size, the lower the critical recrystallization strain. So the DRX is carried out more fully, contributing to the thermoplastic deformation of the alloy.     

基于CEL模型的搅拌摩擦焊接7055铝合金仿真模拟

基于耦合的欧拉—拉格朗日(CEL)模型,建立了高可靠性、高精度的搅拌摩擦焊7055铝合金热力耦合计算模型,开展了焊接工艺参数对7055铝合金焊接接头温度、等效应变以及缺陷预测结果的影响规律的研究,并分析和讨论了搅拌摩擦焊试验验证模拟结果的可靠性. 7055铝合金搅拌摩擦焊CEL模型预测结果表明,温度和等效塑性应变与转速呈正比,与焊接速度呈反比,这主要与焊接工艺参数影响轴肩与7055铝合金的摩擦生热及材料的流动,使焊接温度和等效塑性应变值发生变化有关.当焊接速度在60 ? 300 mm/min、转速在300 ? 1 200 r/min范围内,焊接温度均低于7055铝合金熔点,当焊接速度增加到300 mm/min时,由于产热不足,温度和等效塑性应变均降低,此时在焊接接头处容易产生孔洞缺陷.7055铝合金搅拌摩擦焊试验结果表明,当转速为600 r/min、焊接速度为180 mm/min时,7055铝合金接头组织致密,接头抗拉强度达到489 MPa,断后伸长率为4.0%.当焊接速度提高至300 mm/min时,接头抗拉强度为411 MPa,断后伸长率仅为1.0%.这与产热不足导致接头处结合较差有关,与模拟结果一致.     

Strengthening-toughening of 7xxx series high strength aluminum alloys by heat treatment

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基于CA算法的轧制工艺动态再结晶过程模拟

为研究低碳钢轧制变形过程的组织演化,建立了一套奥氏体动态再结晶模型。利用CA算法,基于Deform研究了热轧过程中的再结晶比率和晶粒尺寸的变化。结合变形条件对模型系数的影响,将模型计算所得的组织演变、再结晶体积分数、晶粒尺寸与实验进行了比较,证明了模型的有效性。     

Thermomechanical Characterization of Mg-9Al-1Zn Alloy Using Power Dissipation Maps

A processing map is developed on the basis of the Dynamic Material Model for Mg-9Al-1Zn. The model considers the work piece as a dissipator of power and power loss variation with temperature and strain rate constitutes the power dissipation map. To this end, the thermomechanical (i.e., hot compression) characteristics of a Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy was studied in the temperature range of 250-425 °C and strain rates of 0.001-1 s^?1. The strain rate sensitivity (m), power dissipation efficiency (η), and instability parameter (ξ) are computed based on the experimental hot compression data. The deformation mechanisms of different regions in the maps are analyzed and corresponding microstructures are investigated. The processing map of Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy exhibits five workability domains. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was observed in three of the domains, while in the two other domains grain boundary sliding, twining, and precipitation are the dominant mechanisms. The optimum hot working conditions of Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy are located in the two domains where DRX takes place. They correspond to 375 °C/0.001 s^?1 and 380 °C/1 s^?1 with peak efficiency of 42 and 36%, respectively.     

细晶TC4钛合金的动态再结晶行为及数值模拟

采用实验和有限元模拟相结合的方法,研究了经连续变断面循环挤压制备的细晶TC4钛合金热加工过程中的动态再结晶（DRX）行为。通过实验得到的真应力-应变曲线,建立了细晶TC4钛合金的临界应变模型和DRX动力学模型,并基于所建立的DRX模型,采用DEFORM-3D软件对其热压缩过程进行了模拟。结果表明:热压缩工艺参数对细晶TC4合金的DRX行为有显著影响;随着变形温度的升高和应变速率的降低,动态再结晶的体积分数（XDRX）及其晶粒尺寸均增大;随着应变的增大,变形区的等效应变和区域范围均增大;合金变形时,XDRX的实验值与其模拟值的相关性为0.9762,表明所建立的模型具有较高的精度。