汶川地震断层岩气体和液体渗透率实验研究

以N2和水为孔隙流体在20-180 MPa围压范围内详细测量了汶川地震断裂带断层岩的渗透率,并同时测量了作为参照的砂岩的渗透率.实验结果表明,气体和液体渗透率均随围压增加而幂次衰减.在相同围压和孔隙压条件下,N2渗透率高于水渗透率接近1个数量级.将Klinkenberg效应校正后的气体渗透率（绝对渗透率）与水渗透率进行了比较.对比结果显示,砂岩的绝对渗透率与水渗透率基本一致;但断层岩绝对渗透率显著高于水渗透率,表明断层岩气体渗透率与水渗透率之差别不能完全由Klinkenberg效应解释.对实验数据的拟合分析表明,滑脱因子b值与绝对渗透率kl存在幂律关系（b=λkld）.断层岩符合b=0.2×10–3kl–0.557关系（R2=0.998）,显示绝对渗透率在10^–16-10^–20 m2范围内,控制断层岩渗透率的因素是一致的.另一方面,断层岩的d值明显小于砂岩的d值,暗示二者的滑脱效应存在差异.分析表明,断层岩中的粘土矿物颗粒表面吸附水及粘土矿物吸水膨胀导致有效孔隙尺寸减小是造成断层岩渗透率显著低于绝对渗透率的主要原因.研究结果显示,对于富含粘土矿物的断层岩,经Klinkenberg校正后的气体渗透率与水渗透率并不一致,因此采用相应的液体作为测量介质才能够更为准确和真实地揭示地下流体的渗流状况.     

水库蓄水与断层带流体孔隙压时-空分布的数值模拟——以紫坪铺水库为例

通过对汶川地震破裂带上的断层岩及围岩的渗透率测量,获得了研究区岩石的渗透率随深度变化的规律。依据所得到的渗透率实验数据,数值模拟了紫坪铺水库蓄水所产生的流体孔隙压的时空分布。模拟结果显示,渗透率是否随深度变化,其流体孔隙压的模拟结果也相差很大。由于断层带具有高渗的特点,因此与水库底部存在水力联系的断层带及其宽度对流体渗透的模拟结果有明显的影响。断层带越宽,下渗作用越明显,流体孔隙压的分布与断层带的产状越接近。若断层带宽度为100~300m,2008年汶川MS8.0地震发生时,其震源区的流体孔隙压为0.1~0.15MPa,与库体载荷在断层面上产生的附加正应力相当。该模拟结果可以作为进一步分析汶川地震的发生是否与紫坪铺水库蓄水存在关联的重要约束。     

汶川地震断裂带水岩相互作用及其对断裂带演化影响

汶川地震断层岩的矿物学和地球化学特征揭示出地震断层经历了漫长时间演化和复杂的水岩相互作用.间震期水岩相互作用导致断层岩中的破碎矿物蚀变,尤其是长石等矿物含量渐渐减少甚至消失,而黏土矿物（蒙脱石、伊利石、伊/蒙混层、绿泥石等）含量逐渐增高,以及如黄铁矿、石膏、重晶石、坡缕石等热液系统中常见的矿物大量出现;Mg、P、Ti、Mn、Fe等元素倾向富集在断层带中,而Si、K和Na等出现明显的亏损;元素的大量迁移导致断层带的体积巨量亏损.实验结果表明,黏土矿物的亲水性引起水渗透率比干燥气体渗透率明显偏低,并且二者偏差无法通过Klinkenberg校正消除.蒙脱石吸水膨胀和黏土矿物颗粒表面吸附孔隙流体造成孔隙度降低是导致水渗透率偏低的重要原因.断层岩碎屑结构使得其中的孔隙可能在600 MPa围压下得以保存,从而有助于流体沿断层带下渗,并在断层带深部形成高流体孔隙压.地震断层的主要矿物学及粒度分布特征并非在地震破裂过程中形成,因此利用断层岩粒度分布资料估算地震破裂能并不合适.     

断层岩气体渗透率及Klinkenberg效应

在围压2~40MPa变化范围内,以恒流法多次变化上游压力测量了以断层岩为主的样品的气体(N2)渗透率,将实验结果进行了Klinkenberg效应校正。对实验数据的拟合分析表明,滑脱因子b值与绝对渗透率kl存在b=λkl-d形式的幂律关系,断层岩符合b=0.004 6kl-0.476的变化关系。与沉积岩相比,断层岩的气体滑脱效应更强,采用气体测量渗透率时,其滑脱效应不能忽略。断层岩气体渗透率和绝对渗透率与测量所用的孔隙压力间的关系为kg/kl=1+(0.009 2kl-0.476)/(Pu+Pd)。结果表明样品渗透率越低,滑脱效应越强,提高孔隙压力,滑脱效应逐渐减小;对于高渗(10-15m2~10-18m2)的样品,高孔隙压力下(4MPa以上)的气体渗透率与绝对渗透率基本一致,对于超低渗(10-22m2~10-20m2)的样品,即使提高孔隙压力亦很难避免滑脱效应。在40MPa有效压力下断层泥样品的绝对渗透率为4.54×10-19m2~2.43×10-17m2,角砾岩的绝对渗透率较断层泥高出1~2个数量级,为2.25×10-17m2~7.94×10-16m2,表明汶川地震断层带具有核部低、破碎带高的渗透结构,断层带核部具备热压作用发生所要求的低渗条件。     

塔巴庙低渗致密砂岩渗透率有效应力定律实验研究

为了从实验角度探索低渗砂岩是否存在很小的ESCK值及重新认识低渗砂岩ESCK的变化规律,用两种修正的析因设计方案开展了塔巴庙低渗致密砂岩渗透率有效应力定律实验研究.一种方案包含了3个循环,每个循环是在孔隙流体压力不变,通过加载和卸载围压完成的;另一种方案包含4个循环,每个循环是在围压不变,通过降低和增加孔隙流体压力完成的.采用稳态法采集每个测点的渗透率值,并选择合适的经验模型拟合实验数据.为了使模型更好地拟合实验数据,本文采用最大似然函数法确定的转换系数转换实验得到的渗透率数据,使拟合得到的经验模型计算的渗透率值与实验值偏差的联合概率密度趋于极大值且残余平方和最小.拟合得到的经验模型可以用渗透率-围压-内压响应面直观地表示,再用Bernabe的ESCK计算式将这一响应面转换成渗透率有效应力系数ESCK-围压-内压响应面.ESCK响应面的响应特征表明,ESCK随围压和孔隙流体压力的变化而变化,随围压的增加而降低,随内压的增加而增加,反之亦然;实验研究还表明,ESCK的变化范围在0.0~1.02之间,这一变化范围和以往实验的结果存在巨大的差异,为此,文中分析了产生这一差异原因,同时提出一新的机理模型解释了实验获取的ESCK的变化规律是低渗岩石中微裂缝和孔隙变形共同作用的结果.     

断层带流体对断层强度和强震孕育的影响

大量研究表明,流体在断层弱化中起着非常重要的作用.在地壳浅部脆性域,自由水通过流体孔隙压力减小断层有效正压力,从而降低断层摩擦强度;在地壳深部,矿物中的微量结构水弱化岩石流变强度.另外,流体-岩石相互作用等化学过程,如长石水解反应,对断层强度的影响也非常显著.断层深部流体通过物理作用与化学作用影响着岩石的变形机制,从而影响断层力学性质与地震孕育和发生.断层内部流体孔隙压力周期性变化是断层带脆-塑性转化、裂缝张开与愈合等的直接体现,这种变化控制着断层强度与强震周期性发生现象.     

流体对石灰岩断层摩擦滑动影响的实验研究

在气体介质三轴高温岩石力学实验仪器上,采用意大利Scaglia Bianca石灰岩,在温度50～300℃、围压150MPa,含50MPa孔隙压、无孔隙压含饱和水和完全干燥三种条件下,开展摩擦滑动实验.实验力学数据和显微结构表明,完全干燥样品在120℃时出现慢滑移,实验样品中没有出现溶解与沉淀.无孔隙压含饱和水条件下,100℃、120℃、150℃条件下出现典型的慢滑移,实验样品中含有微弱的溶解与沉淀;300℃条件下出现黏滑,实验样品中出现沉淀.在含50MPa孔隙压条件下,50℃时的实验表现为典型的稳滑,实验样品中以溶解为主;在100～150℃时,出现慢滑移,实验样品中以溶解为主,沉淀为辅;在200～300℃时,出现典型黏滑,实验样品中以沉淀为主.实验结果表明,石灰岩断层泥摩擦滑动稳定性随温度变化,受流体中碳酸钙的溶解和沉淀作用控制,因此,流体中矿物质的饱和度这一化学性质对断层带的摩擦强度和摩擦滑动稳定性具有显著影响.     

裂缝-孔隙介质储层渗透率表征及其影响因素分析

含裂缝多孔介质渗透率预测是非常规油气资源勘探开发的一个紧迫问题.现有多孔介质岩石物理模型通常利用圆形孔管模拟宏观岩石孔隙空间,难以定量描述软孔隙/裂缝在压力作用下的闭合情况,缺乏裂缝/孔隙间流量交换的连通机制.本文提出含三维裂缝/软孔隙网络多孔介质模型,将储层岩石裂缝/软孔隙表示为椭圆截面微管,建立了周期性压力作用下微观裂缝流量表达式,通过网络模型和流量守恒条件,得到含有三维裂缝/软孔隙网络的多孔介质渗透率计算方法.数值算例表明,预测结果与实验数据分布范围吻合很好,能够给出不同类型岩心对应孔隙纵横比的分布图.三维裂缝/软孔隙网络模型建立了宏观可观测量与裂缝参数之间关系,能够定量分析岩石渗透率随裂缝体密度、纵横比、孔隙流体类型和围压等因素的变化规律,为复杂条件下储层渗透率预测提供了一种有效方法.     

致密砂岩储层应力敏感性实验研究

研究的背景:在油田开采过程中,随着地层压力的下降,作用在岩石颗粒上有效应力的增加,均会使岩石颗粒发生变形,产生应力敏感,降低储层的孔隙度和渗透率,影响流体在多孔介质中的渗流特征,给油田的合理开发带来诸多困难.研究方法及目的:利用美国Core Laboratory公司的仪器进行孔隙度、渗透率的测定,结合扫描电镜、铸体薄片以及核磁共振技术分析鄂尔多斯盆地延长组长7段低孔、低渗储层的应力敏感性.研究结果:(1)在定覆压变孔压和定孔压变覆压条件下,孔隙度、渗透率均随着孔隙压力的减小、上覆压力的增大而减小,属于"先快后慢"型的应力敏感性损害模式.孔隙度相对损失率1.21%~3.28%,渗透率相对损失率44%~70%,渗透率应力敏感性较强.(2)在有效应力压差相同情况下,渗透率相对损失率小于40%时,定孔压变覆压引起的渗透率损失率较大;渗透率相对损失率大于40%时,定覆压变孔压引起的渗透率损失率较大.(3)孔隙度应力敏感性与岩石的微观孔隙结构、孔隙大小及岩石颗粒的抗压能力有关,而渗透率主要与岩石的孔喉、孔隙尺寸分布有关.研究意义:为致密油勘探开发中保持合理的生产压差,减轻储层应力敏感性损害,为提高油井产能和采收率提供一定的实验依据.     

地震断层带流体作用的岩石物理和地球化学响应研究综述

断层活动导致断裂带裂隙广泛发育,成为地壳中流体运移与聚集的有利通道和场所.流体在地震过程中具有重要作用.流体与地震破裂带内的岩石相互作用导致其具有与其他完整岩石不同的性质,包括矿物-化学组成、粒度分布及传输性质(渗透率、孔隙度)等.这些特性可以视为流体与地震断层带岩石相互作用的响应.一方面,较高的孔隙流体压力导致断层的有效正应力降低.另一方面,流体会与断层岩发生一系列水-岩反应导致矿物蚀变、分解,生成大量摩擦系数较低的粘土矿物,同时一些不稳定元素可能会随流体发生迁移,导致大量物质流失.在地震周期过程中,伴随着流体运移,断层带的物理性质(渗透性、流体压力等)也随之发生变化.同震快速摩擦生热会导致流体产生热压作用,促进同震滑动.另外,同震破裂导致断层带的渗透性快速上升,较高的流体压力会很快释放.在间震期过程中流体会使破裂趋向于缓慢变形,矿物溶解-沉淀、重结晶及压溶等作用胶结并愈合裂隙,断层强度恢复的同时断层带渗透性逐渐降低,孔隙压力又逐渐积累.研究流体的这些物理化学行为对理解地震成核、同震滑动及震后断层愈合等过程有重要意义.本文介绍了有关流体对断层带物理化学性质的改造及流体的动力学意义等方面的研究进展,总结了流体在地震周期过程中所产生的一系列岩石物理化学效应及其对地震过程的影响.     

汶川地震断层带结构及渗透率

对汶川地震断层带进行了跨断层的渗透率测量.结果显示汶川地震断层由低渗的核部(2.4×10-19～3.8×10-16m2)、高渗的破碎带(3.7×10-16～3.0×10-15m2)以及含裂隙原岩(6.0×10-18～4.3×10-13 m2)组成(有效压力40 MPa),其中新鲜断层泥具有最低的渗透率.断层泥和两侧原岩...     

Fluid involvement in normal faulting

Evidence of fluid interaction with normal faults comes from their varied role as flow barriers or conduits in hydrocarbon basins and as hosting structures for hydrothermal mineralisation, and from fault-rock assemblages in exhumed footwalls of steep active normal faults and metamorphic core complexes. These last suggest involvement of predominantly aqueous fluids over a broad depth range, with implications for fault shear resistance and the mechanics of normal fault reactivation. A general downwards progression in fault rock assemblages (high-level breccia-gouge (often clay-rich) → cataclasites → phyllonites → mylonite → mylonitic gneiss with the onset of greenschist phyllonites occurring near the base of the seismogenic crust) is inferred for normal fault zones developed in quartzo-feldspathic continental crust. Fluid inclusion studies in hydrothermal veining from some footwall assemblages suggest a transition from hydrostatic to suprahydrostatic fluid pressures over the depth range 3–5 km, with some evidence for near-lithostatic to hydrostatic pressure cycling towards the base of the seismogenic zone in the phyllonitic assemblages. Development of fault-fracture meshes through mixed-mode brittle failure in rock-masses with strong competence layering is promoted by low effective stress in the absence of thoroughgoing cohesionless faults that are favourably oriented for reactivation. Meshes may develop around normal faults in the near-surface under hydrostatic fluid pressures to depths determined by rock tensile strength, and at greater depths in overpressured portions of normal fault zones and at stress heterogeneities, especially dilational jogs. Overpressures localised within developing normal fault zones also determine the extent to which they may reutilise existing discontinuities (for example, low-angle thrust faults). Brittle failure mode plots demonstrate that reactivation of existing low-angle faults under vertical σ₁ trajectories is only likely if fluid overpressures are localised within the fault zone and the surrounding rock retains significant tensile strength. Migrating pore fluids interact both statically and dynamically with normal faults. Static effects include consideration of the relative permeability of the faults with respect to the country rock, and juxtaposition effects which determine whether a fault is transmissive to flow or acts as an impermeable barrier. Strong directional permeability is expected in the subhorizontal σ₂ direction parallel to intersections between minor faults, extension fractures, and stylolites. Three dynamic mechanisms tied to the seismic stress cycle may contribute to fluid redistribution: (i) cycling of mean stress coupled to shear stress, sometimes leading to postfailure expulsion of fluid from vertical fractures; (ii) suction pump action at dilational fault jogs; and, (iii) fault-valve action when a normal fault transects a seal capping either uniformly overpressured crust or overpressures localised to the immediate vicinity of the fault zone at depth. The combination of σ₂ directional permeability with fluid redistribution from mean stress cycling may lead to hydraulic communication along strike, contributing to the protracted earthquake sequences that characterise normal fault systems.     

Experimental studies on gas and water permeability of fault rocks from the rupture of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The permeabilities of fault rocks from the rupture of Wenchuan earthquake were measured by using nitrogen gas and distilled water as pore fluids under the confining pressure ranging from 20 to 180 MPa at room temperature. Experimental results indicate that both gas and water permeabilities decrease with increasing confining pressure, described by power law relationship, i.e., b = 0.2×10–3kl–0.557. The water permeability is about one order less than gas permeability and also half order smaller than the permeability corrected by the Klinkenberg effect, so-called intrinsic permeability. The differences in the permeabilies imply that the reduction of effective pore size caused by the adhesion of water molecules to clay particle surface and water-swelling of expandable clay minerals contributes to lessening the water permeability besides the Klinkenberg effect. Hence, the liquid permeability of fault rocks cannot be deduced by gas permeability by the Klinkenberg correction reliably and accurately, and it is necessary to use liquid as pore media to measure their transport property directly.     

Hydromechanical Heterogeneities of a Mature Fault Zone: Impacts on Fluid Flow

In this paper, fluid flow is examined for a mature strike‐slip fault zone with anisotropic permeability and internal heterogeneity. The hydraulic properties of the fault zone were first characterized in situ by microgeophysical (V_P and σ_c) and rock‐quality measurements (Q‐value) performed along a 50‐m long profile perpendicular to the fault zone. Then, the local hydrogeological context of the fault was modified to conduct a water‐injection test. The resulting fluid pressures and flow rates through the different fault‐zone compartments were then analyzed with a two‐phase fluid‐flow numerical simulation. Fault hydraulic properties estimated from the injection test signals were compared to the properties estimated from the multiscale geological approach. We found that (1) the microgeophysical measurements that we made yield valuable information on the porosity and the specific storage coefficient within the fault zone and (2) the Q‐value method highlights significant contrasts in permeability. Fault hydrodynamic behavior can be modeled by a permeability tensor rotation across the fault zone and by a storativity increase. The permeability tensor rotation is linked to the modification of the preexisting fracture properties and to the development of new fractures during the faulting process, whereas the storativity increase results from the development of micro‐ and macrofractures that lower the fault‐zone stiffness and allows an increased extension of the pore space within the fault damage zone. Finally, heterogeneities internal to the fault zones create complex patterns of fluid flow that reflect the connections of paths with contrasting properties.     

地震研究中的断层流体动力学问题

流体在断裂带地震周期中具有重要作用。 在地震流体研究中, 该文建议在如下几个方面加强研究力度: ① 断层渗透结构和断裂带古水文地质旋回的研究; ② 断裂带流体循环的尺度效应; ③ 流体分布、 循环与构造展布关系; ④ 断裂带深浅部流体关系研究。 在断层流体动力学研究中, 建议就某一发震断裂带开展系统研究, 并优先解决以下问题: ① 断裂带流体的起源和成分; ② 产生和维持高孔隙压力的构造环境和水文地质条件; ③ 断裂带及邻近岩体流体运移及重新分布的机制; ④ 取得断裂带孔隙压力变化的数量知识; ⑤ 垂直方向和水平方向流体孔隙压力变化范围; ⑥ 地震周期中流体迁移与孔隙压变化规律。     

Flow in an aquifer charged with hot water from a fault zone

Many geothermal anomalies are intersected by vertical fault zones (narrow zones of fractured material with large effective permeability). These conduits are probably responsible for much of the upwelling of hot water from depth. This paper considers a shallow aquifer intersected by a vertical fault. The fluid flow in the aquifer is numerically modeled as a two-dimensional problem. It is observed that the temperature distribution in the aquifer is governed primarily by lateral flow of hot water supplied from the intersecting vertical fault and only secondarily by conduction. The numerical results also provide a possible explanation for the local temperature maxima and inversions occasionally observed in borehole measurements. The present model is an alternative to that based on mushroom-shaped isotherm distributions found in high Rayleigh number large-scale circulation cell calculations.     

Pore-fluid pressures and frictional heating on a fault surface

This study considers the effects of heat transfer and fluid flow on the thernal, hydrologic, and mechanical response of a fault surface during seismic failure. Numerical modeling techniques are used to account for the coupling of the thermal, fluid-pressure, and stress fields. Results indicate that during an earthquake the failure surface is heated to a tempeature required for the thermal expansion of pore fluids to balance the rate of fluid loss due to flow and the fluid-volume changes due to pore dilatation. Once this condition is established, the pore fluids pressurize and the shear strength decreases rapidly to a value sufficient to maintain the thermal pressurization of pore fluids at near-lithostatic values. If the initial fluid pressure is hydrostatic, the final temperature attained on the failure surface will increase with depth, because a greater pressure increase can occur before a near-lithostatic pressure is reached. The rate at which thermal pressurization proceeds depends primarily on the hydraulic characteristics of the surrounding porous medium, the coefficient of friction on the fault surface, and the slip velocity. If either the permeability exceeds 10^–15 m² or the porous medium compressibility exceeds 10^–8 Pa^–1, then frictional melting may occur on the fault surface before thermal pressurization becomes significant. If the coefficient of friction is less than 10^–1 and if the slip velocity is less than 10^–2 msec^–1, then it is doubtful that either thermal pressurization or frictional melting on the fault surface could cause a reduction in the dynamic shear strength of a fault during an earthquake event.     

CORRELATION BETWEEN GAS GEOCHEMICAL EMISSION AND FAULT ACTIVITY OF THE YUXIAN-GUANGLING AND KOUQUAN FAULTS

Soil gas emission is closely related to tectonic and seismic activity and has been widely used to track active faults and monitor seismicity in the upper crust. Because active fault plays an important role as the channel of the earth's deep gas upward migration due to its high permeability and porosity, the geochemical characteristics of soil gas in fault zone is a good indicator of tectonic fracture and activity. In order to study the soil gas geochemical emission intensities and its correlation to fault activity, fluxes of Rn, Hg and CO₂ in soil gas and the ground resistivity were surveyed across the Yuxian-Guangling Fault and Kouquan Fault which are both Quaternary active faults in the border area of Shanxi Province, Hebei Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. In 2017, soil gas fluxes were measured in 2 profiles consisting of 10 and 9 wells of depth of 3.0m across the fault scarps in Yuxian-Guangling Fault and Kouquan Fault, respectively. Resistivity tomography sections were attained by ground resistivity survey with electrode spacing of 5.0m along the profiles of soil gas measurement. The gas geochemical data show that there exist two abnormal flux peaks across the Yuxian-Guangling Fault and one in the Kouquan Fault. The high density resistivity measurement shows that fault breccia and fractured rocks zones are developed under the measured faults, where higher values of soil gas flux are also observed. Fractures with high gas permeability in the strata favor the transfer and migration upward of soil gases, which results in the anomalies of gas flux value. In addition, the anomalies of gas flux values are spatially identical with the occurrence of the fault scarps. The soil gas degassing rate of Yuxian-Guangling Fault is higher than that of Kouquan Fault. The research results of high density electrical prospecting and previous tectonic activity show that low-resistance bodies are more developed and the fault activity is stronger with higher slip rate, which leads to the more intense emission of soil gas in Yuxian-Guangling Fault. The conclusions can be made that soil gas geochemical characteristics and degassing rate in fault zone is closely correlated to the tectonic activity and fracture degree. Combination of geochemical and geophysical methods is an efficient way for the monitoring and study of fault activity to estimate the possible earthquake hazards.     

孕震介质水动力学性质对前兆场影响的研究

提出了纵向非均匀、饱含液体多孔介质孕震动力学方程组的数值解法。为了考虑非弹性效应，对该方程组采用增量形式求解。提供了当存在垂直力源和纵向非均匀时，定量分析研究垂直剖面上的地震孕育过程及其前兆变化机制的方法和软件。选用了一个饱含液体的双层地壳模型，运用所研制的软件计算分析了介质孔隙度、渗透率等地壳水动力学性质对前兆场的影响。研究发现，孕震介质孔隙度的大小对前兆场的分布可以产生显著影响。孔隙度较大时，非弹性体积膨胀（前兆）的出现和变化一开始仅局限于断层附近区域，同时非弹性膨胀（前兆）持续的时间（前兆持时）占总孕震时间的比率较大；孔隙度较小时，非弹性体积膨胀除在紧靠断层的区域内孕震早期会出现非弹性膨胀（前兆）外，在离断层较远的区域内早期也会出现前兆异常。介质渗透率对前兆场的影响主要表现在：当其它条件完全相同，仅介质渗透率不同时，较低的渗透率会推迟前兆异常的发生，同时使前兆异常首先在断层附近出现，然后向外扩展，并且使孕震过程变长；而当渗透率较高时，前兆异常一开始便会展布在断层周围及其远离断层的较大范围内。