A review of the microbiological hazards of dairy products made from raw milk

This review concentrates on information concerning microbiological hazards possibly present in raw milk dairy products, in particular cheese, butter, cream and buttermilk. The main microbiological hazards of raw milk cheeses (especially soft and fresh cheeses) are linked to Listeria monocytogenes, verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC), Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella and Campylobacter. L. monocytogenes, VTEC and S. aureus have been identified as microbiological hazards in raw milk butter and cream albeit to a lesser extent because of a reduced growth potential compared with cheese. In endemic areas, raw milk dairy products may also be contaminated with Brucella spp., Mycobacterium bovis and the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Potential risks due to Coxiella burnetii and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) are discussed. Pasteurisation ensures inactivation of vegetative pathogenic microorganisms, which increases the safety of products made thereof compared with dairy products made from raw milk. Several control measures from farm to fork are discussed.     

Meta-analysis of the incidence of foodborne pathogens in Portuguese meats and their products

Meat and meat products are the main vehicles of foodborne diseases in humans caused by pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) and Staphylococcus aureus. In order to prioritise research on those microbial hazards, a meta-analysis study was conducted to summarise available information on the presence of such pathogens in meats produced in Portugal. By using a logit-transformed proportion as effect size parameterisation, a number of multilevel random-effect meta-analysis models were fitted to estimate mean occurrence rates of pathogens, and to compare them among meat categories (i.e., bovine meat, broiler meat, pork, minced beef and minced pork), and among meat product categories (i.e., intended to be eaten cooked, to be eaten raw and cured meats). The mean occurrence rate of Campylobacter in Portuguese broiler meat (40%; 95% CI: 22.0–61.4%) was about ten times higher than that of Salmonella (4.0%; 95% CI: 1.4–10.8%); although these levels were comparable to current EU ranges. Nevertheless, in the other meat categories, the meta-analysed incidences of Salmonella were slightly to moderately higher than EU averages. A semi-quantitative risk ranking of pathogens in Portuguese-produced pork pointed Salmonella spp. as critical (with a mean occurrence of 12.6%; 95% CI: 8.0–19.3%), and Y. enterocolitica as high (6.8%; 95% CI: 2.2–19.3%). In the case of the Portuguese meat products, the non-compliance to EU microbiological criteria for L. monocytogenes (8.8%; 95% CI: 6.5–11.8%) and Salmonella spp. (9.7%; 95% CI: 7.0–13.4%) at sample units level, in the categories ‘intended to be eaten cooked’ and ‘to be eaten raw’, were considerably higher than EU levels for ready-to-eat products in comparable categories. S. aureus was the pathogen of greatest concern given its high occurrence (22.6%; 95% CI: 15.4–31.8%) in meat products. These results emphasised the necessity of Portuguese food safety agencies to take monitoring, and training actions for the maintenance of good hygiene practices during the production of the great variety of traditional meat products. This meta-analysis study also highlighted important gaps of knowledge, and may assist food safety authorities in the prioritisation of microbiological hazards, and the implementation of essential food safety assurance systems at primary production.     

Silage review: Foodborne pathogens in silage and their mitigation by silage additives

Silage is one of the main ingredients in dairy cattle diets and it is an important source of nutrients, particularly energy and digestible fiber. Unlike properly made and managed silage, poorly made or contaminated silage can also be a source of pathogenic bacteria that may decrease dairy cow performance, reduce the safety and quality dairy products, and compromise animal and human health. Some of the pathogenic bacteria that are frequently or occasionally associated with silage are enterobacteria, Listeria, Bacillus spp., Clostridium spp., and Salmonella. The symptoms caused by these bacteria in dairy cows vary from mild diarrhea and reduced feed intake by Clostridium spp. to death and abortion by Listeria. Contamination of food products with pathogenic bacteria can cause losses of millions of dollars due to recalls of unsafe foods and decreases in the shelf life of dairy products. The presence of pathogenic bacteria in silage is usually due to contamination or poor management during the fermentation, aerobic exposure, or feed-out stages. Silage additives and inoculants can improve the safety of silage as well as the fermentation, nutrient recovery, quality, and shelf life. This review summarizes the literature on the main foodborne pathogens that occasionally infest silage and how additives can improve silage safety.     

Prevalence,Distribution, and Diversity of Salmonella spp. in Meat Samples Collected from Italian Slaughterhouses

Recently worldwide food safety authorities indicated the rise of foodborne outbreaks linked to Salmonella: this highlighted the need to intensify monitoring and apply more targeted controls to help manage the spread of the disease. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and distribution of Salmonella serotypes in 7 slaughterhouses, located in different areas of Naples province (Regione Campania, Italy). Meat samples collected from the slaughterhouses were submitted for standardized microbiological analysis in 2015. Results of routine testing for Salmonella spp. were analyzed and then compared to biochemical and molecular evaluations. Salmonella spp. were detected in 12% of 320 samples examined (39/320) and the isolation rates ranged from 87% (32 samples) for raw poultry meat to 13% (7 samples) for pork meat. Biochemical serotyping showed that approximately 50% of the isolates belonged to Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis. Rapid detection methods, such as molecular analysis (polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis), able to confirm food matrices contamination, represent a valid support to the fast identification of Salmonella species. A further aspect of the study consisted, indeed, on analyzing isolated strains through molecular evaluations. By amplifying bacterial DNA—using invA primers, selective for Salmonella—it was possible, in less than 3 h, to classify the isolates as Salmonella spp., confirming the results of microbiological outcomes. Results of distribution analysis, supported by rapid molecular approaches, showed the difficulty of reducing Salmonella risk on food chain. This emphasized the importance of periodic surveillance to prevent outbreaks.     

Culture‐Dependent and Culture‐Independent Nucleic‐Acid‐Based Methods Used in the Microbial Safety Assessment of Milk and Dairy Products

Despite great advances in the diagnostics and better awareness for food safety and security worldwide, significant numbers of foodborne outbreaks have been traced back to the consumption of milk and dairy products contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and pathogenic Escherichia coli. Several culture‐dependent and culture‐independent nucleic acid‐based methods have been proposed to identify, detect, and type milk‐ and dairyborne pathogenic bacteria. In our review, we will provide an overview on why it is of utmost importance to ascertain the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in milk and milk products; thereafter, we will describe the most commonly used culture‐dependent and culture‐independent methods, as well as the most attractive ones with regard to their future exploitation, providing the reader with new insights into how and when they can be exploited to ensure the enumeration, and accurate detection at both species and strain level of the most important milk‐ and dairyborne pathogenic bacteria, even if in a viable but nonculturable state.     

Improving food safety within the dairy chain: an application of conjoint analysis

This study determined the relative importance of attributes of food safety improvement in the production chain of fluid pasteurized milk. The chain was divided into 4 blocks: "feed" (compound feed production and its transport), "farm" (dairy farm), "dairy processing" (transport and processing of raw milk, delivery of pasteurized milk), and "consumer" (retailer/catering establishment and pasteurized milk consumption). The concept of food safety improvement focused on 2 main groups of hazards: chemical (antibiotics and dioxin) and microbiological (Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, and Staphylococcus aureus). Adaptive conjoint analysis was used to investigate food safety experts' perceptions of the attributes' importance. Preference data from individual experts (n = 24) on 101 attributes along the chain were collected in a computer-interactive mode. Experts perceived the attributes from the "feed" and "farm" blocks as being more vital for controlling the chemical hazards; whereas the attributes from the "farm" and "dairy processing" were considered more vital for controlling the microbiological hazards. For the chemical hazards, "identification of treated cows" and "quality assurance system of compound feed manufacturers" were considered the most important attributes. For the microbiological hazards, these were "manure supply source" and "action in salmonellosis and M. paratuberculosis cases". The rather high importance of attributes relating to quality assurance and traceability systems of the chain participants indicates that participants look for food safety assurance from the preceding participants. This information has substantial decision-making implications for private businesses along the chain and for the government regarding the food safety improvement of fluid pasteurized milk.     

Evaluation of the Microbial Safety of Child Food of Animal Origin in Greece

Foodborne illness is a major cause of morbidity and mortality especially for children, even in the developed world. The aim of this study was to assess the microbial safety of food of animal origin intended for consumption by children in Greece. Sampling involved 8 categories of retail products and was completed with a collection of 850 samples. These were tested by PCR and/or culture for Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella spp., Cronobacter sakazakii, Brucella spp., and Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis (MAP). The number of positive results recorded collectively for the pathogens under investigation over the total number of samples tested was 3.52% and 0.12% by PCR and culture, respectively. The most frequently detected pathogen was enterohemorrhagic E. coli (1.29%) followed by Brucella (0.82%) and Listeria (0.82%). DNA belonging to MAP was detected in 0.35% of samples, which was also the percentage of positivity recorded for Campylobacter. The percentage for Salmonella was 0.12%. It can be concluded from the results that there is no indication of noncompliance for the tested food samples. However, detection of DNA belonging to pathogens that are transmissible to humans through food is indicative that constant vigilance regarding food safety is an absolute necessity.     

Assessment of the microbiological safety of edible dried seeds from retail premises in the United Kingdom with a focus on Salmonella spp.

Sesame seed products have recently been associated with a number of Salmonella outbreaks in the UK and elsewhere. Aside from sesame seeds, there is little published information on the prevalence of Salmonella spp. in edible seeds. A study of 3735 samples of retail edible dried seeds in the UK was therefore carried out between October 2007 and March 2008 to assess their microbiological safety in relation to Salmonella contamination and levels of Escherichia coli, an indicator of faecal contamination. Overall, Salmonella was detected in 23 samples (0.6%), of which over half (57%) were sesame seeds. Other seeds contaminated with Salmonella were linseed (1 sample), sunflower (1 sample), alfalfa (1 sample), melon (4 samples) and mixed seeds (3 samples). E. coli was detected in 9% of samples, with 1.5% containing unsatisfactory levels (≥10²/g). These included melon, pumpkin, sesame, hemp, poppy, linseed, sunflower and mixed seeds. The UK retailers affected by the detection of Salmonella in their products recalled the contaminated batches, and Food Standards Agency food alerts were issued to advise against the consumption of affected seed products. This study highlights the importance of good hygiene practices and effective decontamination procedures during the production of these products.     

Incidence and role of Salmonella in seafood safety

Seafood products are appreciated worldwide for their high nutritional value and are increasingly popular among consumers. Consumer preferences range from fresh products, eaten raw or minimally processed, to variously prepared (salted, smoked, cured, canned) and ready-to-eat (RTE) products. Moreover, seafood products are a major food category in international trade and are frequently shipped very long distances. All these factors expose seafood to various contaminants, including those of microbiological origins, such as Salmonella. The presence of Salmonella in seafood may derive from contamination occurring in the natural aquatic environment, in aquaculture or during processing. In addition, the isolation of Salmonella serovars that are resistant and multiresistant to antibiotics continues to raise concerns. In this review various aspects associated with the microbiological risk posed by the presence of Salmonella in seafood are examined. The most recent data of incidence are presented, and some prevention and control strategies are considered.     

Dynamic predictive model for the growth of Salmonella spp. in liquid whole egg

Abstract: A dynamic model for the growth of Salmonella spp. in liquid whole egg (LWE) (approximately pH 7.8) under continuously varying temperature was developed. The model was validated using 2 (5 to 15 °C; 600 h and 10 to 40 °C; 52 h) sinusoidal, continuously varying temperature profiles. LWE adjusted to pH 7.8 was inoculated with approximately 2.5–3.0 log CFU/mL of Salmonella spp., and the growth data at several isothermal conditions (5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, and 47 °C) was collected. A primary model (Baranyi model) was fitted for each temperature growth data and corresponding maximum growth rates were estimated. Pseudo‐R² values were greater than 0.97 for primary models. Modified Ratkowsky model was used to fit the secondary model. The pseudo‐R² and root mean square error were 0.99 and 0.06 log CFU/mL, respectively, for the secondary model. A dynamic model for the prediction of Salmonella spp. growth under varying temperature conditions was developed using 4th‐order Runge–Kutta method. The developed dynamic model was validated for 2 sinusoidal temperature profiles, 5 to 15 °C (for 600 h) and 10 to 40 °C (for 52 h) with corresponding root mean squared error values of 0.28 and 0.23 log CFU/mL, respectively, between predicted and observed Salmonella spp. populations. The developed dynamic model can be used to predict the growth of Salmonella spp. in LWE under varying temperature conditions. Practical Application: Liquid egg and egg products are widely used in food processing and in restaurant operations. These products can be contaminated with Salmonella spp. during breaking and other unit operations during processing. The raw, liquid egg products are stored under refrigeration prior to pasteurization. However, process deviations can occur such as refrigeration failure, leading to temperature fluctuations above the required temperatures as specified in the critical limits within hazard analysis and critical control point plans for the operations. The processors are required to evaluate the potential growth of Salmonella spp. in such products before the product can be used, or further processed. Dynamic predictive models are excellent tools for regulators as well as the processing plant personnel to evaluate the microbiological safety of the product under such conditions.     

Food Safety Evaluation Based on Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging: A Review

In recent years, due to the increasing consciousness of food safety and human health, much progress has been made in developing rapid and nondestructive techniques for the evaluation of food hazards, food authentication, and traceability. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and imaging techniques have gained wide acceptance in many fields because of their advantages over other analytical techniques. Following a brief introduction of NIR spectroscopy and imaging basics, this review mainly focuses on recent NIR spectroscopy and imaging applications for food safety evaluation, including (1) chemical hazards detection; (2) microbiological hazards detection; (3) physical hazards detection; (4) new technology-induced food safety concerns; and (5) food traceability. The review shows NIR spectroscopy and imaging to be effective tools that will play indispensable roles for food safety evaluation. In addition, on-line/real-time applications of these techniques promise to be a huge growth field in the near future.     

Comparison of microbiota of recycled manure solids and straw bedding used in dairy farms in eastern Canada

Recycled manure solids (RMS) bedding is an alternative bedding option that is growing in popularity on Canadian dairy farms. However, the microbiological characteristics and production of RMS bedding are poorly documented under on-farm conditions in eastern Canada. This bedding could support the presence of pathogens and could have an effect on cow and human health. The aim of this study was to describe the RMS microbiota when used under dairy cows and compare it with straw bedding. Unused and used bedding from 27 RMS and 61 straw-bedded dairy farms were collected and compared using 16S amplicon sequencing, bacterial counts, and Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes detection. Microbiota composition of unused RMS and unused straw were different. After use, both bedding microbiota were similar in their bacterial composition, structure, and diversity. Unused RMS generally contained higher bacterial counts than did unused straw, except for Klebsiella spp. counts. Salmonella spp. and L. monocytogenes were more frequently detected in unused RMS (Salmonella spp.: 11%; L. monocytogenes: 30%), than in unused straw (Salmonella spp.: 0%; L. monocytogenes: 11%). Finally, 2 RMS production systems (extraction of the liquid fraction followed by maturation in an opened or enclosed container vs. in a heap) did not influence the microbiota richness and bacteria distribution (α-diversity), but did influence the microbiota structure (β-diversity). In conclusion, animal and human pathogens were found in greater numbers and more frequently in unused RMS than unused straw, and this could eventually affect dairy cow or human health.     

Nanotechnology in the food sector and potential applications for the poultry industry

BackgroundSalmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are among the most frequently reported foodborne diseases worldwide. Commercial chicken meat has been identified as one of the most important food vehicles for Salmonella and Campylobacter infection. Increased poultry consumption has forced producers to explore methods for increasing their production output, while maintaining the affordability and safety of their products. While the forecast benefits of nanotechnology have yet to be fully realised, it has potential application at many points along the food production chain and offers the opportunity to meet these challenges.Scope and approachThe commercial poultry processing environment plays a significant role in reducing foodborne pathogens and spoilage organisms from poultry products prior to being supplied to consumers. This review discusses the potential opportunities and challenges for adopting nano-enabled technologies in the poultry industry, with respect to applications in microbiological food safety and quality assurance in the processing plant.Key findings and conclusionsSeveral possibilities exist to exploit the benefits of nanotechnologies in the poultry processing plant to enhance the microbiological safety and quality of products. Those applications include the adoption of nano-enabled disinfectants, surface biocides, protective clothing, air and water filters, packaging, biosensors and rapid detection methods for contaminants, and technologies that assure the authenticity and traceability of products. Although the fate and potential toxicity of nanomaterials are not fully understood at this time and scientific risk assessments are required, it is evident that there have been significant advances in the application of novel nanotechnologies in the food industry.     

A Review of Oxygen Toxicity in Probiotic Yogurts: Influence on the Survival of Probiotic Bacteria and Protective Techniques

Oxygen toxicity is considered a significant factor influencing the viability of probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium spp. in yogurts. This review assesses the involvement of oxygen during the manufacture of yogurt and its diffusion into the final product. The oxygen sensitivity of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp. is discussed. The impact of dissolved oxygen of the product on the survival of these probiotic bacteria is highlighted. Additionally, microbiological, chemical, and packaging techniques recommended to protect probiotic bacteria from oxygen toxicity in dairy products are reviewed.     

Role of Bacillus species in biofilm persistence and emerging antibiofilm strategies in the dairy industry

Biofilm-forming Bacillus species are often involved in persistent contamination and spoilage of dairy products. They therefore present a major microbiological challenge in the field of dairy food quality and safety. Due to their substantial physiological versatility, Bacillus species can survive in various parts of dairy manufacturing plants, leading to a high risk of product spoilage and potential dissemination of foodborne diseases. Furthermore, biofilm and heat-resistant spore formation make these bacteria challenging to eliminate. Thus, some strategies have been employed to remove, prevent, or delay the formation of Bacillus biofilms in the dairy industry, but with limited success. Lack of understanding of the Bacillus biofilm structure and behavior in conditions relevant to dairy-associated environments could partially account for this situation. The current paper reviews dairy-associated biofilm formation by Bacillus species, with particular attention to the role of biofilm in Bacillus species adaptation and survival in a dairy processing environment. Relevant model systems are discussed for the development of novel antimicrobial approaches to improve the quality of dairy food. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry     

Salmonella spp. contamination in fresh pork and chicken sausages marketed in Niterói and Rio de Janeiro,Brazil

Fresh sausages are one of the most popular meat products consumed in Brazil. However, the use of contaminated raw material, unhygienic handling during processing, and inadequate storage could be hazardous to consumer’s health, since fresh-sausage processing does not include heat treatment and the product may carry several human pathogens such as Salmonella spp.. In this study, a total of 80 fresh sausages prepared with pork and chicken meat were evaluated regarding Salmonella spp. presence by PCR after selective enrichment and bacteriological culture. Twenty-one sausage samples (27 %) proved to be contaminated with Salmonella spp.. Sixteen (76 %) contaminated samples were detected by PCR combined with enrichment broth culturing, whereas conventional microbiological screening detected only 8 (38 %). In this study, evidence was raised regarding packing conditions of fresh sausages, since it seems that there is no significant difference in Salmonella spp. contamination among samples in their original packing (23 %), wrapped in plastic or unpacked (27 %). Similarly, meat composition seems not to have a determinant influence in contamination, since 20 % of the chicken and 29 % of the pork sausages were contaminated. The contamination rate of Tuscan-type sausages was 37 %, while contamination was found in 21 % of ham sausages, suggesting that the cut of pork did not have a determinant influence in the contamination by Salmonella in fresh sausages. The results shown here indicate that fresh sausages marketed in Niterói and Rio de Janeiro may be contaminated with Salmonella spp., requiring more attention by sanitary authorities in order to assure the safety of this food.     

Effect of selected dairy starter cultures on microbiological, chemical and sensory characteristics of swine and venison (Dama dama) nitrite-free dry-cured sausages

The aim of this study was the evaluation of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) starter culture of dairy origin in the production of nitrite-free low-acid fermented venison (Dama dama) sausage (salame di daino) produced in a small-scale plant in Umbria (Italy), and their effect on microbiological, physico-chemical and sensorial properties of the products. Salame di daino was obtained with two different processes: with and without the addition of selected LAB starter cultures. Microbial counts of Enterobacteriaceae, coliform organisms and Pseudomonas spp. were lower in salami made with the addition of starter cultures. Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp, and Listeria monocytogenes after the first week of ripening were only detected from control salami. Control salami were paler and harder, whereas those made with the addition of starter cultures were slightly saltier, juicier and in general more acceptable. Selected dairy-origin starter (SDS) cultures did prevent the growth of both indicators of food safety and of process hygiene and increased the acceptability of full-ripened salami.     

Microbial quality and safety of milk and milk products in the 21st century

Milk and milk products have been utilized by humans for many thousands of years. With the advent of metagenomic studies, our knowledge on the microbiota of milk and milk products, especially as affected by the environment, production, and storage parameters, has increased. Milk quality depends on chemical parameters (fat and protein content and absence of inhibitory substances), as well as microbial and somatic cells counts, and affects the price of milk. The effects of hygiene and effective cooling on the spoilage microbiota have shown that proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria such as Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter spp. predominate the spoilage bacterial populations. These bacteria can produce heat‐stable proteases and lipases, which remain active after pasteurization and thus can spoil the milk during prolonged storage. Additionally, milk can become contaminated after pasteurization and therefore there is still a high demand on developing better cleaning and sanitation regimes and equipment, as well as test systems to (quantitatively) detect relevant pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms. Raw milk and raw milk cheese consumption is also increasing worldwide with the growing demand of minimally processed, sustainable, healthy, and local foods. In this context, emerging and re‐emerging pathogens once again represent a major food safety challenge. As a result of global warming, it is conceivable that not only microbiological risks but also chemical risks relating to presence of mycotoxins or plant toxins in milk will increase. Herein, we provide an overview of the major microbial hazards occurring in the 21st century.     

Microbiological safety and quality of Mozzarella cheese assessed by the microbiological survey method

Dairy products are characterized by reduced shelf life because they are an excellent growth medium for a wide range of microorganisms. For this reason, it is important to monitor the microbiological quality of dairy products and, in particular, the total viable count and concentration of Escherichia coli, as they are indicators of the hygienic state of these products. In addition, in dairy products such as Mozzarella cheese, it is important to monitor the concentration of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), as they are the major components of starter cultures used in cheese production, contributing to the taste and texture of fermented products and inhibiting food spoilage bacteria by producing growth-inhibiting substances. For these reasons, to ensure the quality and safety of their products, cheese makers should monitor frequently, during fresh cheese production, the concentration of LAB and spoilage bacteria. However, usually, small- to medium-size dairy factories do not have an internal microbiological laboratory and external laboratories of analysis are often too expensive and require several days for the results. Compared with traditional methods, the microbiological survey (MBS) method developed by Roma Tre University (Rome, Italy) allows faster and less-expensive microbiological analyses to be conducted wherever they are necessary, without the need for a microbiological laboratory or any instrumentation other than MBS vials and a thermostat. In this paper, we report the primary validation of the MBS method to monitor LAB concentration in Mozzarella cheese and the analysis, using the MBS method, of total viable count, E. coli, and LAB concentrations in the production line of Mozzarella cheese as well as during the shelf life of the product stored at 20°C. The results obtained indicate that the MBS method may be successfully used by small- to medium-size dairy factories that do not have an internal microbiological laboratory. Using the MBS method, these dairy factories can monitor autonomously the microbiological safety and quality of their products, saving both time and money.     

Outbreaks and factors influencing microbiological contamination of fresh produce

Fresh fruits and vegetables are nutritionally well‐recognised as healthy components in diets. The microbiological foodborne outbreaks associated with the consumption of fresh produce have been increasing. Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter spp. and Listeria monocytogenes are the most common pathogens that contaminate fresh produce. This review discusses recent foodborne outbreaks linked to fresh produce, factors that affect microbiological contamination and measures that could be adopted to reduce the foodborne illnesses. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry