Change in haematological profile of pregnant camels (Camelus dromedarius) at term

Haematological parameters of 28 pregnant camels (Camelus dromedarius) were compared with those of 32 non-pregnant camels (C. dromedarius). The parameters compared were: total erythrocytes count (RBC), haemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration and total leucocyte count (TLC). Results obtained indicate that RBC, Hb and PCV decreased in the later stages of pregnancy while TLC remained unchanged. Calculated indices revealed a significant increase in MCV (p < 0.02) of pregnant camels.     

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium isolated from dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Qeshm Island, Southern Iran

This study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) on Qeshm Island, southern Iran. Sixty-five faecal samples were obtained from camels (age range 2–12 years) housed in ten privately owned herds from three equal-length areas (west, east and central) on Qeshm Island, southern Iran. All samples were analysed for Cryptosporidium oocysts by microscopic examination of smears stained by modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. The parasite was detected in 11 camels (16.9%). The genus identity of the oocysts was confirmed by morphology and was similar to Cryptosporidium parvum. The mean (±SD) size of 225 oocysts was 5.1 (0.42) × 4.38 (0.27) μm (range 4.2–5.3 × 3.8–4.5 μm) with a shape index (length/width) of 1.17 (0.03; range 1.11–1.18). Data analyses indicated significant difference in prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in western and central areas compared with the eastern area. Numerous reports indicate that water is a major vehicle for transmission of cryptosporidiosis. Geographical studies in western and eastern areas show that areas of vegetation, lagoons and seasonal rivers in these two regions are more frequent than the eastern part. Possible source of contamination of these waters by Cryptosporidium may be related to sewage from human and faeces of domesticated and wild animals. Therefore, it is possible that water may be a predisposing factor for transmission of cryptosporidiosis in these areas.     

Cross-species chromosome painting among camel, cattle, pig and human: further insights into the putative Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype

The great karyotypic differences between camel, cattle and pig, three important domestic animals, have been a challenge for comparative cytogenetic studies based on conventional cytogenetic approaches. To construct a genome-wide comparative chromosome map among these artiodactyls, we made a set of chromosome painting probes from the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) by flow sorting and degenerate oligonucleotide primed-PCR. The painting probes were first used to characterize the karyotypes of the dromedary camel (C. dromedarius), the Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus), the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), the alpaca (L. pacos) and dromedary  ×  guanaco hybrid karyotypes (all with 2n  =  74). These FISH experiments enabled the establishment of a high-resolution GTG-banded karyotype, together with chromosome nomenclature and idiogram for C. dromedarius, and revealed that these camelid species have almost identical karyotypes, with only slight variations in the amount and distribution patterns of heterochromatin. Further cross-species chromosome painting between camel, cattle, pig and human with painting probes from the camel and human led to the establishment of genome-wide comparative maps. Between human and camel, pig and camel, and cattle and camel 47, 53 and 53 autosomal conserved segments were detected, respectively. Integrated analysis with previously published comparative maps of human/pig/cattle enabled us to propose a Cetartiodactyla ancestral karyotype and to discuss the early karyotype evolution of Cetartiodactyla. Furthermore, these maps will facilitate the positional cloning of genes by aiding the cross-species transfer of mapping information. †Both authors contributed equally to this paper.     

Electrophoretic Study of Haemoglobin Polymorphism in One-humped Camel ( Camelus dromedarius )

In order to study haemoglobin polymorphism in one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius), blood samples were collected from 53 such camels (35 males and 18 females). The camels were further divided into two groups: <5 years (25) and >5 years (28). Haemoglobin electrophoresis was carried out on lysates. Two types of haemoglobin, A1 and A2, were fractionated and the levels of each type were determined for both sex and age groups. Haematocrit (%), total haemoglobin (g/L) and haemoglobin A1 (g/L) showed significant differences between the sexes (p<0.05). No significant differences were seen between age groups for any of the parameters measured. Correlation coefficients between measured parameters were also determined.     

Corvid birds (Corvidae) act as definitive hosts for Sarcocystis ovalis in moose (Alces alces)

Epidemiological data and a unique phylogenetic position had suggested that Sarcocystis ovalis in moose and red deer might use a definitive host other than canids, felids, or humans. Corvid birds and rats were therefore evaluated as potential definitive hosts for this species in a small pilot study. Four laboratory rats were each inoculated with 10 or 25 sarcocysts of S. ovalis isolated from moose, but no Sarcocystis oocysts were detected in their intestinal mucosa upon euthanasia 2 to 3 weeks later. At a site where large flocks of corvid birds (hooded crows, ravens and European magpies) fed on remnants of moose carcasses during the hunting period in October, fresh bird droppings were collected on the ground and examined microscopically and by molecular methods. By microscopy, a small number of typical Sarcocystis sporocysts, measuring 12.8 × 8.4 μm, were found in the faecal samples. These sporocysts were identified as belonging to S. ovalis by a polymerase chain reaction assay using specific primer pairs targeting the ssu rRNA gene, followed by sequence analysis. The intestinal contents of a crow and two magpies shot near the dumping site were also examined. Sarcocystis oocysts (16.1 × 12.4 μm) and free sporocysts (12.5 × 7.9 μm) were found in the intestinal mucosa/contents of one magpie (Pica pica). These oocysts/sporocysts were also found to belong to S. ovalis by the same molecular assay. This is the first report of corvid birds acting as definitive hosts for a species of Sarcocystis.     

Life cycle of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sarcocystis camelicanis</Emphasis> infecting the camel (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Camelus dromedarius</Emphasis>) and the dog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis familiaris</Emphasis>), light and electron microscopic study

In the present study, the heteroxeneous life cycle of Sarcocystis sp. infecting camels were studied. A total of 180 slaughtered camels collected from different localities in Egypt were investigated for sarcocysts. Only 116 animals were found to be infected (the infection rate was 64%). Muscle samples of esophagus, diaphragm, tongue, skeletal, and heart muscles were examined. Exclusively, microscopic sarcocysts were detected in all examined organs. The infection rates of the esophagus, diaphragm, tongue, skeletal, and heart muscles were 60%, 50%, 40%, 40%, and 10%, respectively. By means of transmission electron microscopy, details of the ultrastructure of the sarcocysts were studied. The specific architecture and ornaments of the cyst wall, its protrusions, and the cyst interior were recorded. Unique features of protrusions of the primary cyst wall, the knob-like structures, arise around each protrusion. Experimental infection of carnivores by feeding heavily infected camel muscles revealed that the dog, Canis familiaris, is the only final host of the present Sarcocystis species. Gamogony, sporogonic stages, and characteristics of sporulated oocysts were also investigated.     

Change in biochemical profile of pregnant camels (Camelus dromedarius) at term

Results for biochemical determinations on serum of 28 pregnant camels (Camelus dromedarius) at term were compared with those of 32 non-pregnant camels (C. dromedarius). Sera from pregnant group had higher mean alkaline phosphatase activity and lower mean albumin, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, cholesterol, iron, phosphorus, total protein concentrations, γ-glutamyl transferase, and lactate dehydrogenase activities. All the differences are significant. Globulin, creatinine concentrations, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatinine kinase activities did not differ significantly.     

Evaluation of haematological and serum biochemical parameters in Iranian camels (Camelus dromedarius) infected with haemotrophic Mycoplasma (Eperythrozoon) spp

Blood samples were collected from 67 adult Iranian dromedary camels naturally infected with Mycoplasma spp, and a control group comprised 20 healthy dromedary camels. Haematological and serum biochemical parameters were measured using standard techniques. In Giemsa-stained peripheral blood smears, Mycoplasma appears attached to the surface of erythrocytes. In infected camels, the number of red blood cells, haemoglobin concentration and haematocrit (packed cell volume) significantly decreased (P < 0.05).With regard to the values of mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, a normocytic and normochromic anaemia was observed in infected camels. In infected camels, the concentration of serum glucose was significantly lower as compared with controls (P < 0.05).     

Identification and isolation of stimulator of interferon genes (STING): an innate immune sensory and adaptor gene from camelids

The mechanism by which type I interferon–mediated antiviral response is mounted by hosts against invading pathogen is an intriguing one. Of late, an endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane protein encoded by a gene called stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is implicated in the innate signalling pathways and has been identified and cloned in few mammalian species including human, mouse and pig. In this article, we report the identification of STING from three different species of a highly conserved family of mammals – the camelids. cDNAs encoding the STING of Old World camels – dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) and bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and a New World camel – llama (Llama glama) were amplified using conserved primers and RACE. The complete STING cDNA of dromedary camel is 2171 bp long with a 706‐bp 5′ untranslated regions (UTR), an 1137‐bp open reading frame (ORF) and a 328‐bp 3′ UTR. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the ORF of STING from these three camelids indicate high level of similarity among camelids and conservation of critical amino acid residues across different species. Quantitative real‐time PCR analysis revealed high levels of STING mRNA expression in blood, spleen, lymph node and lung. The identification of camelid STING will help in better understanding of the role of this molecule in the innate immunity of the camelids and other mammals.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sarcocystis</Emphasis> sp. from the goldeneye (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bucephala clangula</Emphasis>) and the mallard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anas platyrhynchos</Emphasis>): cyst morphology and ribosomal DNA analysis

By light microscopy, cysts of Sarcocystis sp. (cyst type I) from the goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) seemed filamentous with a smooth and thin (<1 μm) cyst wall. Ultrastructurally, the cyst wall surface was irregular with minute undulations of the primary cyst wall. These sarcocysts had type-1 cyst wall. Cystozoites were banana-shaped and measured 7.0–8.5 μm in length. By light microscopy, cysts of Sarcocystis sp. (cyst type II) from the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) were ribbon-shaped, very long, and thin. On the surface of the wall (up to 1.5 μm), they had palisade-like villar protrusions closely crowded together. Electron micrographs showed villar protrusions (up to 1.3 μm in length) different in size and shape. The latter had short microprojections especially obvious in the oblique sections. Cystozoites were slightly bent with blunt ends, broader at one end, and measured 13.0–16.1 × 1.8–2.5 μm. Phylogenetic analysis based on the comparison of partial 28S rRNR gene sequences of Sarcocystis sp. (cyst type II) derived from the mallard, Sarcocystis sp. (cyst type I) and Sarcocystis sp. (cyst type III) both derived from the white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) suggested that these sequences belonged to separate Sarcocystis species.     

Sarcocystis atheridis sp. nov., a new sarcosporidian coccidium from Nitsche's bush viper, Atheris nitschei Tornier, 1902, from Uganda

 Transmission experiments were performed to elucidate the life cycle of a Sarcocystis sp. found in a Nitsche's bush viper, Atheris nitscheinitschei (Serpentes: Viperidae), from Uganda. Sporocysts measuring 10.4 (10.0–11.0) × 8.0 (7.0–8.5) μm were given to laboratory mice (Crl: CD1), laboratory rats (Wistar H), and Barbary striped mice, Lemniscomys barbarus. Sarcocysts developed in the skeletal muscles of laboratory mice and L. barbarus. No sarcocyst was observed in laboratory rats. Merogony was observed in the liver of L. barbarus at 7 and 12 days postinfection. Mature sarcocysts in mice reached a length of 30 mm and did not exceed 0.9 mm in diameter at 121 DPI. The primary sarcocyst wall was 0.6–0.8 μm thick and displayed small osmiophilic knob-like protrusions that were up to 150 nm long and 90 nm wide. Two types of asexual multiplication, endodyogony and endopolygony, were found within sarcocysts. Our results indicate that the newly found Sarcocystis represents a new species. Received: 15 February 1999 / Accepted: 25 March 1999     

Haemostatic parameters in the camel (Camelus Dromedarius) comparison with humans

Haemostatic measurements were undertaken in 46 camels (Camelus dromedarius) and the results were compared to human reference values. The effects of sex, age and pregnancy on camel haemostatic parameters were studied. There was significant shortening of the prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time and marked elevation of factor VIII clotting activity (FVIII:C), FVII and FIX in camels as compared to humans. On the other hand, FX, fibrinogen and packed cell volume levels were lower in camels than humans. These results indicate a more active state of the coagulation system in camels as compared to humans and this might be a physiological adaption that protects this animal from excessive blood or fluid loss under the conditions of drought and transhumance.Pregnancy had no effect on any measured parameters. Platelet counts and ATIII levels were higher in males than females, and both parameters, in addition to FIX, decreased with age. The lack of any fluctuations of haemostatic parameters during pregnancy in camels may be related to the placental type; camel placenta which is of the epitheliochorionic type is much less vascular and less liable to bleed than the haemochoroinic placenta of pregnant women, who show a hypercoagulable state to guard against excessive bleeding during placental separation.     

Population sub-structuring among <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trypanosoma evansi</Emphasis> stocks

To investigate the population genetic structure of Trypanosoma evansi from domesticated animals, we have analysed 112 stocks from camels, buffaloes, cattle and horses using the tandemly repeated coding sequence (MORF2) and minisatellite markers 292 and cysteine-rich acidic integral membrane protein (CRAM). We recorded a total of six alleles at the MORF2 locus, seven at 292 and 12 at the CRAM loci. Nei’s genetic distance showed reduced allelic diversity between buffaloes and cattle stocks (1.2) as compared to the diversity between camels and buffaloes (3.75) and camels and cattle stock (1.69). The mean index of association (I _A = 0.92) significantly deviated from zero, and the average number of multilocus genotypes (G/N ratio) was 0.21. Twenty-four multilocus genotypes were defined from the combination of alleles at the three loci. The Kenyan sub-populations showed F _st = 0.28 and analysis of molecular variance showed significant divergence (22.7%) between the Laikipia, Kulal and Galana regions. The regional and host distribution of multi-locus genotypes significant population differentiation and high Nei’s genetic distances suggest existence of genetic sub-structuring within T. evansi stocks while the few multi-locus genotypes and deviation of association index from zero indicate the lack of recombination. In conclusion, this study reveals that some genetic sub-structuring does occur within T. evansi, which has a clonal population structure.     

Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Mashhad, Iran

One hundred twenty camels were blood-sampled and used to evaluate serological screening for Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii infection by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) in Mashhad, Iran, during years 2004–2005. Of the 120 camels, antibodies to N. caninum were found in three in titers of 1:20 and in four in titers of 1:40 using whole N. caninum tachyzoites as IFAT slide (VMRD Inc., Pullman, WA 99163, USA). Antibodies to T. gondii were found in three camels in titers 1:20 and in two camels in titers 1:40 using whole T. gondii tachyzoites as IFAT slide (BIOGENE, Iran).     

Distribution of Insulin Like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) and its Receptor in the Intestines of the One-humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

The distribution of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and its receptor in the gut of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) were studied by immunohistochemistry and quantitative receptor autoradiography. IGF-1-IR cells occurred mainly in the lamina propria and epithelium of the small intestine, while in the large intestine positive cells were seen in the columnar cells of the epithelial layer of colonic glands. IGF-1 was also discernible in the muscularis externa of the intestines. Autoradiography revealed a higher concentration of receptors in the mucosa compared to the muscular layer. With regard to the mucosa, the highest density of receptors was discernible in the duodenum. Immunohistochemistry revealed the main sites of the receptors to be the lamina propria, epithelia of the crypts and the villi of intestines. Double immunofluorescence studies with combined antisera to IGF-I and its receptor showed that the ligand and its receptor usually occurred within the same cell in the mucosa. A few cells with varied profiles immunoreacted to either the ligand or the receptor but not to both. Cells with varied profiles immunoreacted to antiserum of the receptors but not to the ligand in the muscle layer. Thus IGF-1 might be acting on its receptor via both an autocrine and paracrine modes in the camel mucosa. In the muscularis layer, IGF-1 may be acting by different mechanisms. Our data demonstrate that unlike all other mammals studied, the camel contains a high concentration of IGF-1 receptors in the duodenal mucosa compared to other parts of the camel gut. It also possesses a higher concentration of the receptor in its mucosa compared to the muscle layer. We speculate that this might be a significant feature necessary for the regenerative ability of the duodenal mucosa in the one-humped camel.     

Morphological and molecular characterization and phylogenetic placement of Sarcocystis capreolicanis and Sarcocystis silva n. sp. from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Norway

Sarcocysts were isolated from the muscle tissue of three roe deer from southeastern Norway and examined by light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and/or sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssu rRNA) gene. By light microscopy, four sarcocyst types were found, including those of Sarcocystis gracilis and Sarcocystis oviformis, which had been characterized previously. The third cyst type had about 10 μm long, flexible, hair-like surface protrusions, consistent with those of Sarcocystis capreolicanis, and differed genetically from other known species. The name S. capreolicanis was therefore assigned to this sequence type. The fourth cyst type had densely packed, upright, finger-like surface protrusions, about 8 μm long, and was morphologically similar to an unnamed Sarcocystis sp. reported from roe deer in other countries, and identical at the ssu rRNA gene to Sarcocystis sp. Type D previously reported from moose. This species was assigned the new name Sarcocystis silva. Both S. capreolicanis and S. silva displayed considerable intraspecific variation at the ssu rRNA gene. In phylogenetic analyses based on ssu rRNA gene sequences, S. capreolicanis grouped together with other canine-transmitted Sarcocystis species, whereas S. silva was most closely related to Sarcocystis rangiferi and Sarcocystis tarandi of reindeer. Roe deer muscles containing numerous cysts of S. gracilis were fed to a silver fox (Vulpes vulpes) and a blue fox (Vulpes lagopus), both of which started shedding Sarcocystis sporocysts in their faeces 9 days later, and harboured numerous oocysts, measuring about 20 × 15 μm, in their intestinal mucosa upon euthanasia 14 days post-inoculation. DNA derived from these oocysts was amplified and sequenced at the ssu rRNA gene and belonged to S. gracilis, confirming for the first time by molecular methods that foxes are definitive hosts for this species.     

Investigation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coxiella burnetii</Emphasis> in Iranian camels

Coxiella burnetii is a zoonotic, obligate intracellular bacterium that caused Q fever. Antibodies to this organism have been reported in a wide range of animals including mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. This study is aimed to detect C. burnetii in camel by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Blood samples from 130 camels were collected between August and September 2011 then examined in laboratory conditions. Detection of the presence of C. burnetii DNA was carried out using a PCR assay with specific primers (Coc-F and Coc-R) targeting the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (242 bp). In this study, a total of 14 (10.76 %) camel blood samples were found PCR positive for C. burnetii. This result proves that camels are an important reservoir of C. burnetii infection. This study showed relatively high positivity of C. burnetii in Iranians camels, and accordingly, it seems necessary to evaluate the prevalence for this microorganism in Iran.     

A Comparative Study of Erythrocytic Total, Free, Short-chain Acyl and Long-chain Acyl Carnitine Concentrations in Arabian Camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) with Different Species

Carnitine plays a critical role in lipid metabolism. Carnitine deficiency may adversely affect the oxidation of fatty acids and further aggravate abnormal lipid metabolism. Its presence is considerable in tissues that utilise fatty acids as an important source of energy, such as the heart and skeletal muscle. The presence of total (TC), free (FC), short-chain acyl (SC) and long-chain acyl (LC) carnitine was shown for the first time in one-humped Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) erythrocytes. The results showed that concentrations of FC, AC, SC and TC in camel erythrocytes were significantly higher when compared with bovine, rabbit, rat and humans; however, these carnitine fractions were not significantly different when compared with sheep. Moreover, the concentration of LC in camel erythrocytes was significantly higher when compared with rabbit, rat and humans, but there was no significant difference compared with either sheep or bovine. The results showed that there were significant variations in the ratio of acyl carnitine (AC) to FC among the species erythrocytes studied. The ratio in camel erythrocytes was significantly higher when compared with rat, but there was no significant difference in this ratio in camel erythrocytes when compared with bovine, rabbit, sheep and humans. The higher carnitine concentrations and a higher proportion of AC in erythrocytes of the Arabian camel suggest an adaptive mechanism that could be common to desert animal species.     

Influence of road transportation on plasma concentrations of acute phase proteins, including fibrinogen, haptoglobin, serum amyloid A, and ceruloplasmin, in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Transportation is an inevitable husbandry practice which animals encounter in the livestock industry and raises considerable interest both in economic and animal welfare terms. With respect to the growing interest in using acute phase proteins as health and welfare indicators, the aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of road transportation on the concentrations of fibrinogen, haptoglobin, serum amyloid A, and ceruloplasmin in Iranian dromedary camels. Ten clinically healthy Iranian dromedary camels, five males and five females, were selected and subjected to a journey of approximately 300 km in a truck by road during the late summer. Blood samples were collected immediately before loading at 8:30 a.m., after 1 h transportation, at 9:30 a.m., and at the end of the journey after unloading at 1:30 pm. A final blood sample was taken 24 h after arrival. Blood concentrations of plasma proteins, including fibrinogen, haptoglobin, serum amyloid A, ceruloplasmin, total protein, and albumin, were measured using validated methods. Mean basal pre-transport concentrations of fibrinogen (3.10 ± 0.47 g/l), haptoglobin (0.3 ± 0.04 g/l), serum amyloid A (9.77 ± 0.62 μg/ml), and ceruloplasmin (0.096 ± 0.01 g/l) did not change significantly during and after road transportation. In addition, transportation had no significant effects on basal plasma concentrations of total protein (60.8 ± 6.1 g/l) and albumin (38.3 ± 2.1 g/l). No significant difference was observed in any parameter between sexes at each sampling time. We conclude that stressful conditions during the journey under hot summer environmental conditions were not severe enough to trigger an acute phase response. The value of the investigated plasma parameters as welfare indicators in dromedary camel over short transportation would be limited. Taken together, this plasma protein profile may be of value for future research on acute phase proteins as potential markers of health and welfare and to develop a baseline for practical applications in dromedary camels.