Finite element modeling and optimization of superplastic forming using variable strain rate approach

Detailed finite element simulations were carried out to model and optimize the superplastic blow forming process using a microstructure-based constitutive model and a multiscale deformation stability criterion that accounts for both geometrical instabilities and microstructural features. Optimum strain rate forming paths were derived from the multiscale stability analysis and used to develop a variable strain rate forming control scheme. It is shown that the proposed optimization approach captures the characteristics of deformation and failure during superplastic forming and is capable of significantly reducing the forming time without compromising the uniformity of deformation. In addition, the effects of grain evolution and cavitation on the superplastic forming process were investigated, and the results clearly highlight the importance of accounting for these features to prevent premature failure. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming sponsored by the Manufacturing Critical Sector at the ASM International AeroMat 2004 Conference and Exposition, June 8–9, 2004, in Seattle, WA. The symposium was organized by Daniel G. Sanders, The Boeing Company.     

Post-Superplastic Forming Analysis Under Different Loading Paths. Part One: Uniaxial Loading Case

In a previous work, an optimization approach for superplastic forming based on a multiscale stability criterion, and yielding a variable strain rate loading path instead of the commonly used constant strain rate one, was presented. The approach was experimentally validated using the AZ31 magnesium alloy, where it was proven effective in reducing forming time without sacrificing the uniformity of deformation. In this work, the validation process is taken to a different level, where the post-superplastic forming mechanical properties, often ignored in superplasticity, become the criteria. The material is first superplastically deformed under uniaxial loading at an elevated temperature, following both loading paths; constant strain rate versus optimized variable strain rate. Thereafter, specimens extracted from the deformed material are tested at room temperature to evaluate the changes in mechanical properties, in reference to those of the as-received material. The results emphasize on the necessity of a combined forming and post-forming analysis in optimizing the superplastic forming process. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Baltimore, MD, June 25-28, 2007.     

Superplastic response in Al-Mg sheet alloys

The ability to achieve large strains to failure coupled with extremely low flow stresses makes superplastic forming (SPF) an attractive option in the automotive industry for the manufacture of complex parts from aluminum (Al) sheet. However, a barrier to increased usage is the cost penalty associated with superplastic alloys, which are specially processed to have a small and stable grain size. In this article, high-temperature tensile tests are used to compare the superplastic performance of two different Al-Mg alloys that were specially processed for SPF with that of a conventionally processed Al-Mg alloy. The results of the tensile tests and optical microscopy are used to highlight the mechanisms that control deformation in each of these alloys under different test conditions. Failure in both types of materials was found to change from internal cavitation to external necking with increases in strain rate. The specially processed alloys experienced minimal grain growth or grain elongation during forming, and therefore it was assumed that deformation was controlled by grain boundary sliding. Contrary to this, the conventionally processed alloy experienced significant grain growth at the higher test temperatures, and hence it was concluded that deformation was at least partially controlled by some mechanism other than grain boundary sliding. The different deformation characteristics resulted in a different set of optimal forming conditions for the two types of materials. The SPF alloys displayed higher strains to failure at the slower strain rates and higher temperatures, while the conventionally processed alloy displayed higher strains to failure at the faster strain rates and lower temperatures.     

The Effects of Stress State and Cavitation on Deformation Stability During Superplastic Forming

The current available models describing superplastic deformation do not account for a number of important characteristics, leading to the current limited predictive capabilities of deformation and failure. In this work, the effects of cavitation and stress state on deformation stability during superplastic forming are investigated using Finite Element simulations. The simulations are performed using constant strain rate forming and using a proposed optimization approach based on a multiscale failure criterion that accounts for stress state, geometrical necking, and microstructural evolution including grain growth and cavitation. The simulations are conducted for the superplastic copper-based alloy Coronze-638 and the superplastic aluminum alloy Al-5083 which are known to develop significant cavitation during deformation. The results clearly show the importance of accounting for microstructural evolution during superplastic forming, especially when the state of stress is biaxial. Furthermore, the results highlight the effectiveness of the proposed optimization technique in reducing the forming time and maintaining the integrity of the formed parts. This article was presented at the AeroMat Conference, International Symposium on Superplasticity and Superplastic Forming (SPF) held in Seattle, WA, June 6-9, 2005.     

LZ91镁锂合金板材的超塑性气胀成形研究

本文利用热拉伸实验、气胀成形实验、金相分析和扫描电镜观察,研究LZ91镁锂合金板材的超塑性、气胀成形性能及其组织结构。结果表明:在热拉伸变形温度为573 K、应变速率为0.001 s-1时,其伸长率可达343.7 %,应变速率敏感指数为0.697,轧制态的LZ91合金板材表现出优良的超塑性;在胀形温度573 K,胀形气压0.06 MPa条件下,板材成形高度为51.14 mm,高径比达1.279,说明该镁锂合金板材具有良好的超塑性成形潜力;在热拉伸变形和超塑性气胀成形过程中,均有动态再结晶现象产生,可有效提高该合金的塑性成形能力;在拉伸断口和胀形件破裂处断口均存在典型的超塑性空洞形貌特征,说明两者的主要变形机制均为晶界滑移,且合金超塑性失效的主要原因是空洞的长大和连接。     

Pressure Profile Designing in Superplastic Forming Based on the Strain Rate and on Post-forming Properties

In this work, the feasibility of reducing the cycle time in superplastic forming through a selective approach in the algorithm that calculates the forming pressure profile was investigated. First, a 3D numerical model of the blow forming process is created. Then, the blank was partitioned in different characteristic areas according to their strain and strain rate histories. Thus, different pressure profiles were numerically calculated choosing different combinations of those partitions of the blank. Experimental trials were finally carried out in order to explore the potential reduction of the forming time that can be achieved through the described approach without affecting the post-forming properties of the formed specimens. Post-forming properties were measured in terms of thickness distribution, mean grain size, and cavitation effects along the formed sheet. In particular, experiments were performed both with the conventional approach (with the whole sheet being monitored) and considering only the area of the sheet that experiences the highest strain values at the end of the forming process. Results highlighted that this latter approach can efficiently reduce the cycle time.     

SuperplaSticity and superplastic instability of AZ31B magnesium alloy sheet

1 Introduction Due to its light mass, high specific strength, good damping characteristics, strong thermo-conductivity and electromagnetic shielding, magnesium alloys have been regarded as “the green material” with the greatest application potential in …     

温度对TNW700高温钛合金双向超塑性锥杯成形的影响

在910,930和950℃这3种温度下,针对我国新型TNW700高温钛合金薄板开展了双向超塑性圆锥胀形试验,并对圆锥胀形过程进行了理论分析。结果显示:在稳定加载气压的作用下,随着温度的升高,TNW700高温钛合金板料的超塑性变形能力呈先提升、后下降的趋势,在930℃时获得最佳的成形高度和表面应变,且试件具有最均匀的壁厚分布和最稳定的塑性流变。950℃的试样比930℃的试样的最大表面应变下降了11.8%,但其具有最大的平均应变速率。对试件的微观组织观察可知:随着温度的升高,材料不仅发生了晶粒长大的现象,而且伴随有β相的产生;在同一温度下,随着变形量的增加,一定体积分数的β相增加有利于稳定该材料的塑性流变。     

Combined Mechanics-Materials Based Optimization of Superplastic Forming of Magnesium AZ31 Alloy

A new optimization approach for superplastic forming of Mg AZ31 alloy is presented and experimentally validated. The proposed new optimization approach is based on a multiscale failure criterion that takes into account both geometrical necking and microstructural evolution, yielding a variable strain rate forming path instead of the commonly used constant strain rate approach. Uniaxial tensile tests and free bulge forming experiments, in conjunction with finite element analysis, are used to evaluate the proposed optimization approach. Significant reduction in forming time is achieved when following the proposed optimization approach, without compromising the uniformity of deformation.     

Study on superplastic blow-forming of 8090 Al–Li sheets in an ellip-cylindrical closed-die

The purpose of this paper is to explore the plastic deformation behavior of the sheet during blow-forming of a superplastic sheet into an ellip-cylindrical closed-die by the finite element method. A finite element commercial code “DEFORM” is used to carry out the simulations and calculate the pressurization profile and sheet thickness distribution during the blow-forming process. A pressure control algorithm is proposed to keep the maximum strain rate in the deformation zone of the sheet equal to the target value, which corresponds to the highest m value of the material being superplastically formed. The effects of various forming conditions, such as the friction coefficient between the sheet and die and the aspect ratio of the die, on the forming pressure and thickness distribution of the product are discussed. Experiments using 8090 Al–Li sheets on superplastic blow-forming in an ellip-cylindrical closed-die are also carried out. The theoretical predictions of thickness distribution of the product are compared with experimental results.     

Deformation characteristics and cavitation during multiaxial blow forming in superplastic 8090 alloy

This work examined the effect of multiaxial stress on deformation characteristics of a superplastic aluminum alloy 8090 by deforming the sheet into a die with a cylindrical cavity. Several interrupted tests were performed to bulge the sheets to various depths for different strain rates, the formed parts were utilized to evaluate the deformation status, thickness distribution, local strain states, and cavitation. It was found that evolution of cavity volume fraction with forming time could be related to the thinning behavior of the deformed sheet during forming. Decrease in cavity volume fraction at the central region was observed in the later stage of forming as the thickness of the deformed sheet remained constant for all test forming rates.     

钛合金激光焊接接头超塑变形组织演变表征

研究了超塑性变形过程中TC4钛合金激光焊接接头各区域显微组织演变规律,并对相关参数进行表征。结果表明,随着超塑性变形的进行,接头内针状马氏体组织发生α′→α+β相变,同时针状组织长大为片层,接头各区域显微组织逐渐均匀化,促进超塑性变形的进行;随着变形的进行,等轴化率逐渐升高;随着变形温度的升高或初始应变速率的降低等轴化率逐渐上升,促进焊缝超塑性变形的进行。提出采用平均晶粒尺寸来表征热影响区组织的转变程度。随着变形的进行,平均晶粒尺寸逐渐增大,随变形温度的升高或初始应变速率的降低平均晶粒尺寸减小,这有利于接头组织的均匀化。     

Study on superplastic blow-forming in a rectangular closed-die

The objective of this paper is to explore the plastic deformation behavior of the sheet during blow-forming a superplastic sheet into a rectangular closed-die by the finite element method. A finite element commercial code “DEFORM” is used to carry out the simulations and calculate the pressurization profile and the sheet thickness distribution during the blow-forming process. A pressure control algorithm is proposed to keep the maximum strain rate in the deformation zone of the sheet equal to the target value, which corresponds to the highest m-value of the material being SPFed. The thickness distributions of the formed product using constant pressure control and keeping target strain rate control are compared. Experiments using 8090 Al–Li sheets on superplastic blow-forming in a rectangular closed-die are also carried out. The theoretical predictions of thickness distribution of the product are compared with experimental results.     

拉伸条件对Al—Li—Cu—Mg—Zr合金超塑变形行为的影响

研究了拉伸条件对温轧态Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr合金超塑变形行为的影响.结果表明:该合金在变形初期发生了界面取向差逐渐增大,从亚晶组织向再结晶组织变化的形变促使连续再结晶过程;应变速率越高,再结晶速度越快,再结晶晶粒越细;经高应变速率的第一阶段拉伸变形后,形成的细晶组织具有高的应变速率敏感性,同时在低应变速率的第二阶段拉伸变形中发生晶粒长大而具有高的应变硬化效果,两者的综合作用是两段速率拉伸获得高延伸率的根本原因。     

EFFECT OF TENSION CONDITIONS ON SUPERPLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr ALLOY

A much higher elongation of a warm rolled superplastic Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr alloy was madeunder two-stage strain rate tests comparing with the single ones.During initial stage ofdeformation a deformation-induced continuous recrystallization which converted a subgrainstructure into a recrystallized grain structure by a continuous increase in boundarymisorientations had occurred.The higher the strain rate,the faster the continuousrecrystallization and the finer the recrystallized grains.The fine recrystallized grain structureformed during the first stage deformation is the essential condition for the material to havehigh strain rate hardening and strain hardening during the low second stage superplasticdeformation.The combination of strain rate hardening and strain hardening is the reason whythe higher elongation may be obtained during two-stage superplastic deformation of the alloy.     

Superplastic forming characteristics of fine-grained 5083 aluminum

Superplastic forming characteristics of a fine-grained 5083 aluminum sheet have been investigated by means of gas-pressure forming of a rectangular pan. This part geometry lends itself to a simple representation in terms of nearly one-dimensional sheet stretching and permits reasonably rigorous control of strain rate throughout the forming cycle. This study followed a study of the uniaxial tensile properties carried out on this alloy. A two-stage forming cycle, which comprised a short, rapid prestraining stage followed by a stage of slower rate of superplastic straining, was used because the uniaxial tensile work showed enhancement of superplastic response of this alloy under this condition. The study examined the effect of process parameters such as initial gas pressurization rate, level of hydrostatic pressure, and lubricants on the thinning characteristics of the sheet, especially along the die entry radii. The gas pressure/time cycle was suitably modified to avoid premature sheet failure due to excessive sheet thinning or cavitation. Cavitation under the biaxial forming condition and the effect of hydrostatic pressure on cavitation suppression were evaluated. A defect-free pan with sharp corners was formed.     

氮化硅陶瓷超塑性研究

以非晶氮化硅纳米陶瓷粉体为起始材料,以纳米氧化钇和氧化铝为添加剂液相烧结获得超塑性陶瓷块体材料,实现氮化硅陶瓷的超塑性拉伸和超塑性成形。氮化硅陶瓷的平均晶粒直径为280nm,在1550℃的较低温度,4.7×10-4/s的相对较高应变速率下,延伸率可达到110%,在成形速率0.2mm/min的条件下,可拉深成形出完好的球形和锥形零件。在室温断口上存在大量的细小的白色氮化硅晶粒;而高温断口上却几乎不存在这样的晶粒,这种不同可以用氮化硅陶瓷材料的超塑性变形机理来解释,也可以证明超塑性变形过程中晶界玻璃相的存在。     

板料超塑性拉伸失稳研究

基于板料超塑性变形的特点，本文将超塑性变形全过程分为稳定变形、准稳定变形、应变路径漂移和集中性失稳发展四个阶段，依据增量理论，用数值方法建立了一普遍适用的失稳模型。然后在此基础上，依板料发生集中性失稳（ｄε＿２＝０）为许用变形程度的极限，预测了板料超塑变形时的成形极限曲线。对铝合金ＬＹ１２ＣＺ和半硬态黄铜Ｈ６２的超塑性实验研究表明：用本文提出的失稳模型预测的超塑性板料的成形极限与实验结果具有较好的一致性。     

激光焊接头超塑变形组织表征

采用高温拉伸研究激光焊接头超塑性变形行为,分析了焊缝及热影响区在超塑性变形过程中的显微组织演变规律,并提出采用等轴化系数来表征焊缝组织的等轴化进程,采用平均晶粒尺寸来表征热影响区组织的转变程度.结果表明,随着变形的进行,等轴化系数逐渐升高;在相同变形量时,变形温度升高或初始应变速率降低均有利于等轴化系数上升,促进焊缝超塑性变形的进行.随着变形的进行,热影响区平均晶粒尺寸逐渐升高;在相同变形量时,变形温度升高或初始应变速率降低均有利于平均晶粒尺寸上升,促进焊缝超塑性变形的进行.     

Evaluation of the superplastic formability of SP-inconel 718 superalloy

The superplastic formability of SP- lnconel 718 superalloy was evaluated using the argon blowing method. Relationships among superplastic forming parameters (forming temperature, argon pressure, and forming time) and specific dome height (dome height/workpiece diameter) were investigated, as were changes in material properties after superplastic forming. Experimental results showed the optimum forming temperature range for SP- lnconel 718 to be between 975 and 995 °C. During the superplastic forming process, 5- phase precipitates formed at grain boundaries and limited the grain growth, which is considered beneficial for superplastic deformation. On the other hand, increasing the forming deformation also increased the formation of cavities, which can be attributed to the existence of niobium- rich inclusions. This degraded the superplasticity of the superalloy. Electrochemical tests showed that the corrosion resistance of SP- lnconel 718 after superplastic forming worsened because of the existence of both S- phase precipitates and niobium- rich inclusions.