A test statistic in the complex Wishart distribution and its application to change detection in polarimetric SAR data

When working with multilook fully polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, an appropriate way of representing the backscattered signal consists of the so-called covariance matrix. For each pixel, this is a 3/spl times/3 Hermitian positive definite matrix that follows a complex Wishart distribution. Based on this distribution, a test statistic for equality of two such matrices and an associated asymptotic probability for obtaining a smaller value of the test statistic are derived and applied successfully to change detection in polarimetric SAR data. In a case study, EMISAR L-band data from April 17, 1998 and May 20, 1998 covering agricultural fields near Foulum, Denmark are used. Multilook full covariance matrix data, azimuthal symmetric data, covariance matrix diagonal-only data, and horizontal-horizontal (HH), vertical-vertical (VV), or horizontal-vertical (HV) data alone can be used. If applied to HH, VV, or HV data alone, the derived test statistic reduces to the well-known gamma likelihood-ratio test statistic. The derived test statistic and the associated significance value can be applied as a line or edge detector in fully polarimetric SAR data also.     

Application of neural networks for sea ice classification inpolarimetric SAR images

Several automatic methods have been developed to classify sea ice types from fully polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and these techniques are generally grouped into supervised and unsupervised approaches. In previous work, supervised methods have been shown to yield higher accuracy than unsupervised techniques, but suffer from the need for human interaction to determine classes and training regions. In contrast, unsupervised methods determine classes automatically, but generally show limited ability to accurately divide terrain into natural classes. In this paper, a new classification technique is applied to determine sea ice types in polarimetric and multifrequency SAR images, utilizing an unsupervised neural network to provide automatic classification, and employing an iterative algorithm to improve the performance. The learning vector quantization (LVQ) is first applied to the unsupervised classification of SAR images, and the results are compared with those of a conventional technique, the migrating means method. Results show that LVQ outperforms the migrating means method, but performance is still poor. An iterative algorithm is then applied where the SAR image is reclassified using the maximum likelihood (ML) classifier. It is shown that this algorithm converges, and significantly improves classification accuracy. The new algorithm successfully identifies first-year and multiyear sea ice regions in the images at three frequencies. The results show that L- and P-band images have similar characteristics, while the C-band image is substantially different. Classification based on single features is also carried out using LVQ and the iterative ML method. It is found that the fully polarimetric classification provides a higher accuracy than those based on a single feature. The significance of multilook classification is demonstrated by comparing the results obtained using four-look and single-look classifications     

基于极化似然比的极化SAR影像变化检测

由于数据获取困难等问题,目前SAR影像变化检测方法多基于幅度,而较少引入极化信息.针对此方面的不足,以极化SAR数据为研究对象,在分析多极化SAR影像极化特征及其分布模型的基础上,构建极化似然比检验模型,以此进行不同时相的多极化SAR数据地表地物变化程度分析,通过设定恒虚警率确定变化区域,最后考虑地物空间信息剔出斑点噪声引起的孤立检测结果.利用多极化SAR数据进行算法的验证,并与图像比值法进行比较,实验表明:基于极化似然比方法可以有效区分地物的变化情况,且变化检测精度要优于图像比值法.     

An optimal multiedge detector for SAR image segmentation

Edge detection is a fundamental issue in image analysis. Due to the presence of speckle, which can be modeled as a strong, multiplicative noise, edge detection in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images is extremely difficult, and edge detectors developed for optical images are inefficient. Several robust operators have been developed for the detection of isolated step edges in speckled images. The authors propose a new step-edge detector for SAR images, which is optimal in the minimum mean square error (MSSE) sense under a stochastic multiedge model. It computes a normalized ratio of exponentially weighted averages (ROEWA) on opposite sides of the central pixel. This is done in the horizontal and vertical direction, and the magnitude of the two components yields an edge strength map. Thresholding of the edge strength map by a modified version of the watershed algorithm and region merging to eliminate false edges complete an efficient segmentation scheme. Experimental results obtained from simulated SAR images as well as ERS-1 data are presented     

Restoration of polarimetric SAR images using simulated annealing

Filtering synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images ideally results in better estimates of the parameters characterizing the distributed targets in the images while preserving the structures of the nondistributed targets. However, these objectives are normally conflicting, often leading to a filtering approach favoring one of the objectives. An algorithm for estimating the radar cross-section (RCS) for intensity SAR images has previously been proposed in the literature based on Markov random fields and the stochastic optimization method simulated annealing. A new version of the algorithm is presented applicable to multilook polarimetric SAR images, resulting in an estimate of the mean covariance matrix rather than the RCS. Small windows are applied in the filtering, and due to the iterative nature of the approach, reasonable estimates of the polarimetric quantities characterizing the distributed targets are obtained while at the same time preserving most of the structures in the image. The algorithm is evaluated using multilook polarimetric L-band data from the Danish airborne EMISAR system, and the impact of the algorithm on the unsupervised H-α classification is demonstrated     

Intensity-driven adaptive-neighborhood technique for polarimetric and interferometric SAR parameters estimation

In this paper, a new method to filter coherency matrices of polarimetric or interferometric data is presented. For each pixel, an adaptive neighborhood (AN) is determined by a region growing technique driven exclusively by the intensity image information. All the available intensity images of the polarimetric and interferometric terms are fused in the region growing process to ensure the validity of the stationarity assumption. Afterward, all the pixels within the obtained AN are used to yield the filtered values of the polarimetric and interferometric coherency matrices, which can be derived either by direct complex multilooking or from the locally linear minimum mean-squared error (LLMMSE) estimator. The entropy/alpha/anisotropy decomposition is then applied to the estimated polarimetric coherency matrices, and coherence optimization is performed on the estimated polarimetric and interferometric coherency matrices. Using this decomposition, unsupervised classification for land applications by an iterative algorithm based on a complex Wishart density function is also applied. The method has been tested on airborne high-resolution polarimetric interferometric synthetic aperture radar (POL-InSAR) images (Oberpfaffenhofen area-German Space Agency). For comparison purposes, the two estimation techniques (complex multilooking and LLMMSE) were tested using three different spatial supports: a fix-sized symmetric neighborhood (boxcar filter), directional nonsymmetric windows, and the proposed AN. Subjective and objective performance analysis, including coherence edge detection, receiver operating characteristics plots, and bias reduction tables, recommends the proposed algorithm as an effective POL-InSAR postprocessing technique.     

Classification of multifrequency polarimetric SAR imagery using adynamic learning neural network

A practical method for extracting microwave backscatter for terrain-cover classification is presented. The test data are multifrequency (P, L, C bands) polarimetric SAR data acquired by JPL over an agricultural area called “Flevoland”. The terrain covers include forest, water, bare soil, grass, and eight other types of crops. The radar response of crop types to frequency and polarization states were analyzed for classification based on three configurations: 1) multifrequency and single-polarization images; 2) single-frequency and multipolarization images; and 3) multifrequency and multipolarization images. A recently developed dynamic learning neural network was adopted as the classifier. Results show that using partial information, P-band multipolarization images and multiband hh polarization images have better classification accuracy, while with a full configuration, namely, multiband and multipolarization, gives the best discrimination capability. The overall accuracy using the proposed method can be as high as 95% with a total of thirteen cover types classified. Further reduction of the data volume by means of correlation analysis was conducted to single out the minimum data channels required. It was found that this method efficiently reduces the data volume while retaining highly acceptable classification accuracy     

一种从SAR海洋图像中检测舰船航迹的算法

分析了合成孔径雷达 (SAR)图像中舰船航迹的特性和斑点噪声模型及其局部统计特性 ,在此基础上 ,提出了一种结合小波多分辨率分析、自适应阈值选择、边缘检测算子和Radon变换进行斑点噪声抑制和航迹检测的算法。数据处理的结果表明 ,该方法较直接对SAR图像应用Radon变换更有效、准确地检测到SAR图像中的舰船航迹     

一种SAR图象的多方向多尺度融合边缘检测方法

本文从SAR图象的斑点噪声的特性分析出发，对以局部均值比ROA算子的统计特性进行了分析，给出了检测阈值和检测率的关系，提出了解决图象边缘过检测和欠检测的多方向多尺度融合检测算子，并将融合检测算子与其它Canny检测算子的检测结果进行了比较。     

基于梯度的极化SAR图像超像素分割

超像素分割在图像分割领域以其优异的性能表现被广泛应用,准确性和高效性是评价分割性能的重要指标.简单线性迭代聚类（simple linear iterative clustering,SLIC）方法在光学图像上表现出了优异的性能,在极化合成孔径雷达（synthetic aperture radar,SAR）图像中也被广泛应用,然而SLIC方法中的初始化步骤不能准确地定位类中心,需要多次的迭代纠正误差.改进的分水岭方法（spatial constrained watershed,SCoW）是一种基于梯度阈值区分的简单且高效的分割方法,但是不能直接用于极化SAR图像.本文受SCoW的启发,提出一种对SLIC进行预处理的分割方法,通过横虚警（constant false alarm rate,CFAR）边缘检测器计算得到极化SAR图像的梯度信息,并将梯度信息用于初始化分割.基于两幅实测极化SAR图像,将本文提出方法与其他三种方法对比.实验表明本文方法可以减少整个算法的迭代次数,得到更加符合图像信息、贴合图像边界的分割结果.     

Symmetrization of cross-polarized responses in polarimetric radarimages using reciprocity

A new method for symmetrizing polarimetric scattering matrices is applied to the polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images acquired over Mount Shasta. This method symmetrizes the cross-polarized responses in the polarimetric images using a 2×2 matrix derived from the image itself and based on the reciprocal property of natural distributed targets. The covariance parameters of the in-scene trihedral reflectors are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of this method. The results are also compared with those obtained by the symmetrization technique employed by POLCAL, before and after crosstalk removal. Before crosstalk is removed from the images, there were no significant differences between the results obtained by the POLCAL method and the new method for the covariance parameters of trihedral reflectors. After crosstalk removal, using distributed targets with reflection symmetry, the new symmetrization method outperformed the POLCAL method     

基于多尺度特征的SAR区域型目标检测方法

通过对SAR图像的目标特性分析，提出了一种SAR区域型目标的检测方法。与通常的一些目标检测算法相比，该算法在ROI的提取和目标建模两个方面作了改进，提出了一个新的特征提取算子并引入多尺度的梯度特征作为分类依据。算法应用于真实的SAR图像进行居民区的检测，获得了预期的结果。实验表明，基于多尺度梯度特征的目标检测算法具有良好的性能。     

基于邻域一致性的极化SAR图像仿射配准

极化SAR图像的配准是极化SAR图像处理的基础,需要具备较高的精度与速度.基于深度学习的极化SAR图像配准大多数是结合图像块特征的匹配与基于随机抽样一致性的参数迭代估计来实现的.目前尚未实现端到端的基于深度卷积神经网络的一步仿射配准.该文提出了一种基于弱监督学习的端到端极化SAR图像配准框架,无需图像切块处理或迭代参数...     

自适应SAR图像边缘检测算法

边缘检测是图像分析的基础,在对SAR图像进行边缘检测时,由于SAR图像存在很强的相干乘性斑点噪声,几乎没有一种方法既能有效地检测边缘又能排除斑点噪声的影响而不产生较多的虚假边缘,特别是在低视数SAR的情况下,该文指出了在低视数情况下应当如何对Touzi ratio边缘检测方法和最大似然(ML)边缘方法的检测窗口进行改进,在对SAR图像进行边缘检测时,引入了自适应窗口的方法,并将其应用到Touzi ratio边缘检测和最大似然 (ML)两个恒虚警边缘检测算法中,取得了很好的改进效果,引入自适应窗口的方法也适用于其它的SAR图像边缘检测算法。     

Color edge detection using vector order statistics

A method is proposed whereby a color image is treated as a vector field and the edge information carried directly by the vectors is exploited. A class of color edge detectors is defined as the minimum over the magnitudes of linear combinations of the sorted vector samples. From this class, a specific edge detector is obtained and its performance characteristics studied. Results of a quantitative evaluation and comparison to other color edge detectors, using Pratt's (1991) figure of merit and an artificially generated test image, are presented. Edge detection results obtained for real color images demonstrate the efficiency of the detector.     

Speckle reduction in multipolarization, multifrequency SAR imagery

An algorithm to take advantage of this polarization diversity to suppress the speckle effect with much less resolution broadening than using spatial filtering is discussed. The coupling between polarization channels is minimized by using local intensity ratios. The degree of speckle reduction is similar to two-look or three-look processing. The same algorithm can also be used to process multifrequency polarimetric SAR. For three-frequency aircraft SAR data speckle reduction equivalent to six-look processing can be achieved. Further speckle reduction is possible by applying speckle filters in the spatial domain. In addition, a vector speckle filter which operates simultaneously in the polarization and spatial domains is tested. Experimental results with simulated polarimetric SAR as well as one-look and multilook parametric SAR data demonstrate the effectiveness of these speckle reductions, with minimum resolution broadening and coupling between polarimetric and frequency channels. Comparisons with other algorithms are also made     

结构保持的双边滤波极化SAR图像降噪

针对极化合成孔径雷达(Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar, PolSAR)图像相干斑抑制时结构保持的难题,该文提出一种PolSAR图像的双边滤波算法:结构保持的双边滤波(SPBF)。该算法通过结合边缘结构特征和地物散射特性,增强对PolSAR图像结构信息的描述,减少滤波时图像结构信息的损失,实现滤波性能的提高。该算法首先使用边缘检测模板在极化总功率图像(Span)上提取边缘方向,实现自适应选择滤波方向窗;其次,采用Freeman-Durden分解获取像素的散射机制,并根据极化数据的统计分布特性获取地物散射的聚类标记;最终在所选的方向窗中,以聚类标记图为掩膜,利用改进的双边滤波算法对PolSAR数据进行相干斑抑制。真实SAR数据的实验结果表明,该方法能够有效抑制相干斑噪声,同时提高了对图像的边缘、强点目标和极化散射特性的保持能力。     

基于Rail-GPSAR实测数据的地雷检测新方法

本文借鉴恒虚警率(CFAR)思想估计图像数据中杂波的统计量,实现图像的预白化处理。在训练图像中选取地雷图像切片的距离向中心切线作为本征向量构造训练数据阵,获取检测器的参数估计,结合主分量分析设计高效的偏差最优线性二次(DOLQ)检测器。验证了DOLQ检测器输出的灰度图像服从Gamma分布,利用其分布参数和实测数据特点确定整体阈值。对得到的二元图像利用形态学操作获取可疑目标块,然后通过整体阈值和局部门限确定的自适应阈值对其进行二次检测,以确保无漏检的情况下尽可能降低虚警。基于图像中目标能量的空间范围,提出了利用能量环对预白化处理后的图像进行目标检测。最后,提出了一种将能量环与DOLQ检测器的检测结果进行决策级融合的新方法,完成对不同土壤环境、埋设深度地雷的检测。对实际图像的检测结果表明,新方法能够显著降低虚警,且具有较好的稳健性。     

一种新的极化滤波综合性能评估方法

极化合成孔径雷达(SAR)可以获得目标散射的相位信息,这种更加丰富的信息为极化SAR图像相干斑噪声抑制提供了更好的解决方法。通过对几种典型的极化滤波技术的算法实现,基于采样信号波形图、极化特征图和相对标准差,提出了一种新的极化滤波综合性能评估方法。对实测极化SAR数据进行实验验证,结果表明局部统计滤波在图像分辨率的保持、极化信息的保留和相干斑噪声的抑制3个方面都有很好的效果。     

融合极化旋转域特征和超像素技术的极化SAR舰船检测

对海监视是极化SAR的重要应用,密集区域的舰船目标检测是当前面临的主要挑战之一。舰船密集区域受多目标串扰,传统的恒虚警率(CFAR)检测滑窗难以选取纯净的海杂波样本用于确定检测门限,将导致检测性能下降。针对这一问题,该文从特征提取和检测器设计两方面出发,提出一种融合极化旋转域特征和超像素技术的极化SAR舰船检测方法。在特征提取方面,雷达目标的后向散射敏感于目标姿态与雷达视线的相对几何关系,由此带来的散射多样性隐含信息可通过极化旋转域分析进行挖掘。该文利用极化相关方向图及导出的一系列极化旋转域特征,根据目标杂波比(TCR)分析,优选TCR最高的3个极化特征量用于构建目标检测器。在此基础上,该文在检测器设计方面提出了一种基于K均值聚类的杂波超像素筛选方法,有效避免了密集区域舰船目标对邻近杂波的影响,基于筛选的杂波像素点得到舰船目标CFAR检测结果。基于Radarsat-2和高分三号星载全极化SAR数据的对比实验表明,所提方法能有效实现密集区域舰船目标检测,检测品质因数达到95%。