面板倾角对模块式面板加筋土挡墙筋材内力的影响

土工合成材料加筋土挡墙具有良好的力学性能和优越的经济性等优点,在国内外得到了越来越广泛的应用。然而,众多加筋土挡墙的试验数据表明,对加筋土挡墙受力机理的理论研究是滞后于工程建设实践的。针对筋材内力计算这一重要问题,研究了面板倾角对加筋土挡墙筋材内力的影响。首先,以RMC试验挡墙为原型,验证了数值模拟方法的有效性;然后,利用数值模拟方法,分析了不同工况下,加筋土挡墙内竖向土压力和筋材应变随着面板倾角增大的变化趋势。数值模拟结果表明,筋材内力随着加筋土挡墙面板倾角的增大而降低。在数值研究结果的基础上,从潜在滑动面附近土单元应力状态及滑动楔形体的平衡两个方面分析了面板倾角的作用机理,定位了填土竖向土压力以及面板基底水平摩擦阻力两个影响筋材内力的关键因素。     

不同墙趾约束条件下模块式加筋土挡墙离心模型试验

开展了墙趾正常约束、仅对模块–基座界面作光滑处理、仅对基座–地基界面作光滑处理,以及对基座–地基界面作光滑处理且将基座前方土体挖除这4组不同墙趾约束条件的模块式加筋土挡墙离心模型试验,以研究工作应力下墙趾约束条件对挡墙内部稳定性的影响。研究结果表明,墙趾约束条件对模块式加筋土挡墙内部稳定性影响显著;对模块–基座界面作光滑处理的挡墙,其底层模块沿该界面滑移,挡墙中下部的墙面水平位移和筋材应变明显增大,筋材连接力沿墙高呈三角形分布;对基座–地基界面作光滑处理的挡墙,基座前方地基土仍可给基座提供足够的墙趾约束作用,挡墙内部稳定性同墙趾正常约束情况;对于基座–地基界面作光滑处理后又将基座前方土体挖除这种模拟墙趾受到冲刷的挡墙,其基座沿该界面滑移,挡墙中下部的墙面水平位移和筋材应变显著增大,筋材连接力接近极限状态AASHTO法计算的筋材最大拉力,但挡墙仍能保持稳定;在墙趾可能受到冲刷的极端情况下,挡墙在设计上不应考虑墙趾的约束作用,而对于正常服役状态的挡墙,可采用考虑墙趾约束作用的K-刚度法进行挡墙内部稳定性的计算。     

Earth pressure coefficients for reinforcement loads of vertical geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls under working stress conditions

Based on the nonlinear elastic theory and stress-dilatancy theory, two earth pressure coefficients were proposed to analyze the reinforcement loads at the potential failure surface of vertical geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls under working stress conditions. The earth pressure coefficients take into account the force equilibrium and compatible deformations between soil and reinforcement, and can be obtained by solving two implicit functions by an iterative or graphic method. The effects of backfill compaction and facing restriction are taken into account in the earth pressure coefficients by two additional stress factors, which have been derived analytically using straightforward approaches. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed methods, comparisons were made with the results from large scale tests and numerical simulations. It was demonstrated that the reinforcement loads predicted by the proposed methods were in good agreement with the experimental or numerical results.     

横向地震作用下土工合成材料加筋土挡墙筋材拉力分析

土工合成材料加筋土挡墙具备优良的抗震性能,但是,国内外现行的加筋土挡墙筋材动拉力计算方法存在地震动参数选用不尽合理的问题,一方面可能带来结构安全隐患,另一方面也造成了工程界的疑虑.基于此,在前期工作的基础上应用非线性动力有限元法分析了高加筋土挡墙在不同地震激励作用下的地震响应,重点讨论了强震作用下筋材拉力的影响因素.分...     

加筋土挡墙拉筋轴向应力分布规律研究

基于剪力滞模型基本原理对加筋土挡墙筋土作用机理进行了研究。根据拉筋轴向应力是由拉筋周围土体发生剪切位移而产生,紧邻拉筋周围土体仅受剪应力作用的假定,将加筋体单元中土体分为内、外两层,建立了拉筋轴向受力平衡方程,推导出了加筋土挡墙拉筋轴向应力特解。理论分析表明,加筋土挡墙中拉筋轴向应力沿拉筋长度L呈非线性分布,且在x≤L/2时出现一个峰值;当水平拉筋沿筋长方向出现凹陷或凸起时,在该位置将产生拉力峰值。该研究成果合理解释了加筋土挡墙中拉筋轴向应力出现多个峰值以及越靠近墙底部潜在破裂面位置越接近墙面板的原因。     

Failure mechanisms governing reinforcement length of geogrid reinforced soil retaining walls

Current design practice of reinforced soil retaining walls is based on the limit equilibrium approach. The walls are designed for both external and internal stability criteria. Design reinforcement length should be such that minimum required safety factors are fulfilled for all failure modes. Most agencies require minimum reinforcement length equal to 70 percent of wall height. However, it is not always possible to have enough space behind a wall to accommodate these required reinforcement lengths due to an existing natural rock formation, man-made shoring system, or the presence of another reinforced soil retaining wall. This study was performed to investigate governing failure mode in determining the required minimum reinforcement length and also to investigate the possibility of shortening the specified minimum reinforcement lengths. Effect of different parameters involved in the design of reinforced soil retaining walls on the required minimum reinforcement length and the governing failure mode were studied. Parameters considered included wall height, surcharge, reinforcement vertical spacing, reinforced soil properties, backfill/retained soil properties, and foundation soil properties. Results indicated that both external and internal failure modes can be governing criteria in determining the required minimum reinforcement length depending on the parameters involved for a specific wall. In addition, it may be possible to use reinforcement lengths as low as almost 50 percent of the wall height, instead of 70 percent as required by many agencies around the world. This paper presents the results of parametric studies conducted, including the effect of different parameters on the required minimum reinforcement length and the governing failure criteria.     

Influence of toe restraint conditions on performance of geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining walls using centrifuge model tests

Current design regulations most often require use of limit equilibrium methods for the internal stability analyses of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) walls. However, the limit-equilibrium based approaches generally over-predict reinforcement loads for GRS walls when comparing with measured data from full-scale instrumented walls under working stress conditions. Wall toe resistance has an important influence on the performance of GRS walls but is ignored in limit equilibrium-based methods of design. This paper reports centrifuge modelling of GRS walls which have different toe restraint conditions but are otherwise identical. The GRS wall models prepared in this study isolate the influence of wall toe resistance on the performance of walls. Based on measured data from four centrifuge wall model tests, a reduction in wall toe resistance (by reducing the interface shear resistance at the base of the wall facing or removing the soil passive resistance in front of the wall toe or both) induces larger maximum facing deformation and reinforcement strain and load. The results also demonstrate that the wall models with typical toe restraint conditions are most likely operated under working stress conditions while those with poor toe restraint conditions may experience (or be close to reach) a state of limit equilibrium.     

格栅条带式加筋胎面挡土墙变形性能数值计算

采用土工格栅加筋的方法提高废旧轮胎挡墙的承载性能,促进废旧轮胎挡墙的推广应用,通过数值计算方法分析了不同墙顶荷载下有无土工格栅加筋的废旧轮胎挡墙的水平变形与竖向沉降反应特征,得出铺设土工格栅加筋的方法可显著减小墙体的水平变形和竖向沉降,提高废旧轮胎挡墙结构的承载能力,随着外荷载的增加,墙体变形模式依次呈凹凸微小变化型、“弯弓”型、“似弯弓”型和“鼓腮”型和直线型。考虑土工格栅的加筋长度、竖向加筋间距以及格栅加筋刚度3种因素对废旧轮胎+土工格栅加筋土挡墙的水平变形的影响,得出在废旧轮胎加筋土挡墙设计中,建议土工格栅的加筋长度选取范围为0.5H～0.7H,土工格栅竖向间距的选取范围为0.4 m~0.7 m,格栅刚度不宜大于5 000 kN/m。     

Sliding stability and lateral displacement analysis of reinforced soil retaining walls

Field observations have demonstrated that reinforced soil retaining walls generally have superior seismic performance when compared to traditional gravity retaining walls. However, current design guidelines for reinforced soil retaining walls are typically based on pseudo-static methods of analysis, which involve simplifying assumptions. For instance, the reinforced zone is usually assumed as a rigid body in external stability calculations. As a result, the influences of reinforcement arrangement and properties on the sliding stability and displacement of the wall cannot be accounted for in their design. Additionally, the soil shear strength is assumed to be constant in conventional displacement calculations using the Newmark sliding block method. In this paper, an analysis method is proposed to determine the yield acceleration and lateral displacement of reinforced soil walls that includes soil shear strength mobilization and a two-part wedge planar failure mechanism. The proposed method is validated against the results of laboratory model tests, and influences of factors such as ground acceleration coefficients, and reinforcement and backfill properties on the stability of the wall are examined.     

Reinforcement loads in geosynthetic walls and the case for a new working stress design method

The paper provides a synthesis of work by the writers that has the objective of developing a new working stress method for the calculation of reinforcement loads in geosynthetic reinforced soil walls. As a precursor to this objective, careful back-analyses of a database of instrumented and monitored full-scale field and laboratory walls are used to demonstrate that the current American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Simplified Method used in North America results in excessively conservative estimates of the volume of reinforcement required to generate satisfactory long-term wall performance. The new design method captures the essential contributions of the different wall components and properties to reinforcement loads. The method is calibrated against measured in situ wall reinforcement loads using a careful interpretation of reinforcement strains and the conversion of strain to load using a suitably selected reinforcement stiffness value. A novel feature of the method is to design the wall reinforcement so that the soil within the wall backfill is prevented from reaching a failure limit state, consistent with the notion of working stress conditions.     

静动载下筋材变化对加筋土挡墙性能影响分析

为了研究动静荷载下,加筋长度及筋材类型变化对加筋土挡墙工作性能的影响,进行了7种工况下的加筋土挡墙模型试验,对比分析了加筋土挡墙的水平土压力、水平土压力系数、墙面水平位移和加载板竖向沉降及筋材应变等参数的发展规律。试验结果表明:动载下加筋土挡墙筋材应变随着加载时间的增长、加筋长度的减小、位置高度的增加而增大,且顶层筋材应变远远大于其他层;加筋长度及筋材横肋的减少明显降低挡墙的承载性能,格栅横肋减少导致挡墙极限承载力降低18% ,加筋长度减少使面板水平位移最大增大了2.2倍;与静载作用下相比,动载下土工格栅的侧向约束作用及网兜效应能够得到更好地发挥。     

Evaluation of oblique pullout resistance of reinforcements in soil wall subjected to seismic loads

Pullout resistance is one of the most important factors governing seismic stability of reinforced soil walls. The previous studies on the seismic stability of reinforced soil walls have focused on the axial resistance of the reinforcement against the pullout. However, the kinematics of failure causes the reinforcement to be subjected to the oblique pullout force and bending deformation. Considering the kinematics of failure and bending deformation of the reinforcement, this paper presents a pseudo-static seismic analysis for evaluating the pullout resistance of reinforcements in soil wall subjected to oblique pullout forces. A modified horizontal slice method (HSM) and Pasternak model are used to calculate the required force to maintain the stability of the reinforced soil wall and shear resistance mobilized in the reinforcements, respectively. In addition, this paper studies the effect of various parameters on the pullout resistance of the reinforcements in soil wall subjected to seismic loads. Results of this study are compared with the published data and their differences are analyzed in detail.     

Post-construction performance of a two-tiered geogrid reinforced soil wall backfilled with soil-rock mixture

There have been very few studies on the application of soil-rock mixtures as the backfills of geogrid reinforced soil retaining walls with due concern for their long-term performance and safety. In this study, a 17-m high two-tiered reinforced soil wall backfilled with soil-rock mixture was instrumented for its performance under gravity load after construction. The instrumentation continued for 15 months. It is found that soil-rock mixtures with small rock content (<30%) have the potential to be used as the backfill materials of geogrid-reinforced retaining walls, but special attentions should be given to compaction quality, backfill–geogrid interaction, and installation damage to geogrids. Reinforcement slippage is possible because of the large particles, but it was small in this case and ceased to develop nine months after the end of construction. Compressibility difference between reinforced and unreinforced backfill might led to rotation of the upper tier. Using the estimated soil strength, the predictions of reinforcement loads by the FHWA methods were 100% higher than the estimated ones from measured strains.     

An integrated limiting equilibrium approach for design of reinforced soil retaining structures:: Part III—optimal design

Classical retaining structures and conventional reinforced soil designs are limiting points of a continuous spectrum of potential solutions. These limiting cases represent legitimate designs, but they are not necessarily optimal. The present work considers the issue of optimal design of reinforced soil retaining structures in this spectrum. For the particular example considered in the present study the cost of the optimal solution is 47% of the cost of classical cantilever wall without soil reinforcement and 65% of the cost of the conventional reinforced soil design which neglects the wall contribution during reinforcement design. These values depend, naturally, on the support problem under consideration, and component's unit prices, but they clearly illustrate the large potential benefit of the proposed design process.

Conventional design procedures do not have the tools needed in order to evaluate interaction between the wall and the supporting system. As a result, conventional design procedures are restricted to the two end points of the spectrum of potential designs, in which one or the other of the two main components of the support system (wall, or reinforced soil) is practically neglected. The design procedure presented by Baker and Klein (Geotext. Geomembranes 22 (3) (2003a) 119–150; Geotext. Geomembranes 22 (3) (2003b) 151–177) overcomes the limitation of the classical design approach by the introduction of participation factors which quantify the interaction between the wall and the reinforced soil. As a result, the proposed design procedure allows one to quantify the economic trade-off between different walls and supporting systems, making it possible to consider optimal design issues.     

采用K–刚度法设计的模块式加筋土挡墙数值模拟

基于一采用K–刚度法设计的模块式加筋土挡墙建立有限差分数值模型,并采用界面双曲线模型真实模拟底层模块–水平基座界面及水平基座–地基界面,研究实际模块式加筋土挡墙在工作应力下的性状,并进一步分析墙趾界面剪切特性。结果表明:数值计算的挡墙筋材应变分布、填土中各层筋材最大拉力、墙面筋材连接力和墙面最大位移值与实测值比较吻合;K–刚度法计算的填土中筋材最大拉力值与数值模拟和实测值吻合较好,但墙面连接处筋材因受地基沉降和填土压实产生的下拉力影响而大于填土中筋材最大拉力,故K–刚度法不能用于墙面筋材连接力的验算;相较于刚性地基,压缩性地基上模块式加筋土挡墙的墙趾正应力系数较大,而墙趾承担荷载比例较小;尽管基座–地基界面剪切刚度较模块–基座界面小很多,由于其承受的剪应力也很小,墙趾并不会沿着基座–地基界面发生滑移破坏,模块–基座界面对挡墙墙趾起到主要的约束作用。     

Earth pressure coefficients for design of geosynthetic reinforced soil structures

There are several methods proposed in the last two decades that can be used to design geosynthetic reinforced soil retaining walls and slopes. The majority of them are based on limit equilibrium considerations, assuming bi-linear or logarithmic spiral failure surfaces. Based on these failure mechanisms, design charts have been presented by several authors. However, the use of design charts is less and less frequent. The paper presents results from a computer program, based on limit equilibrium analyses, able to quantify earth pressure coefficients for the internal design of geosynthetic reinforced soil structures under static and seismic loading conditions. Failure mechanisms are briefly presented. Earth pressure coefficients calculated by the developed program are compared with values published in the bibliography. The effect of seismic loading on the reinforcement required force is also presented. To avoid the use of design charts and based on the obtained results, approximate equations for earth pressure coefficients estimation are proposed. The performed analyses show that the failure mechanism and the assumptions made have influence on the reinforcement required strength. The increase of reinforcement required strength induced by the seismic loading, when compared to the required strength in static conditions, grows with the backfill internal friction angle. The effects of the vertical component of seismic loading are not very significant.     

地震条件下倾斜挡土墙被动土压力研究

挡土墙的抗震设计是减小地震灾害的一项重要措施。在Mononobe-Okabe平面滑裂面假设的基础上,将随机出现的地震力按最不利工况下的静力考虑,利用水平层分析法得到了地震加速度沿墙高均匀分布时不同挡土墙倾角、填土摩擦角、墙背摩擦角下的地震被动土压力系数、被动土压力强度、被动土压力合力和被动土压力合力作用点的理论公式。分析了地震加速度系数、挡土墙倾角、填土内摩擦角对被动土压力系数和土压力分布的影响,结果表明,地震被动土压力合力与Mononobe-Okabe理论相同,地震土压力强度为非线性分布。在最不利工况下,地震力的出现大大减小了被动土压力,减小的程度随地震加速度的增加而增加。     

Effect of dynamic soil properties and frequency content of harmonic excitation on the internal stability of reinforced soil retaining structure

The effect of dynamic soil properties and frequency content of harmonic excitation on the internal stability of reinforced soil retaining structure is investigated. Arc of a log-spiral is considered as the failure surface in the present limit equilibrium analysis. Backfill and reinforced soil is modeled as a visco-elastic material. The whole structure is considered to be resting on a rigid stratum. Backfill soil and the reinforced soil retaining structure are subjected to harmonic shaking at the base. Present methodology satisfies the stress boundary condition at the ground surface. In the present study, amplitude and phase of the horizontal and vertical seismic accelerations change with depth and the variation of accelerations along the depth is found to be time dependent and nonlinear. All the four possible combinations of horizontal and vertical seismic inertia force directions are considered to determine the total reinforcement force and critical length of the reinforcement. In the present study, amplification of accelerations towards the ground surface depends on the dynamic soil properties and frequency content of input excitation. Detailed parametric study is done to understand their implications on the solution. An algorithm is proposed at the end of this paper which uses strain dependent equivalent linear values of shear wave velocity (V_s) and damping ratio (ξ) to compute the total reinforcement force and critical length of the reinforcement. The limitation of equivalent linear based approach is that it only considers vertically propagating shear wave. Comparison of present method with other theories is also presented showing the merit of the present study.     

Deterministic and probabilistic assessment of margins of safety for internal stability of as-built PET strap reinforced soil walls

The paper demonstrates deterministic and reliability-based assessment of strength limit states (tensile resistance and pullout) and the service limit state for soil failure for mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls constructed with polyester (PET) strap reinforcement. The general approach considers the accuracy of the load and resistance models that appear in each limit state equation plus uncertainty in the estimate of nominal load and resistance values at time of design. Reliability index is computed using a closed-form solution that is easily implemented in a spreadsheet. Three PET strap MSE wall case studies are used to demonstrate the reliability-based assessment approach and to compare margins of safety using different load and resistance model combinations. In some walls using the Coherent Gravity Method to compute loads, the recommended nominal factors of safety for tensile strength and pullout limit states were not satisfied. However, reliability analyses showed that the walls satisfy recommended minimum target reliability index values for the limit states investigated, usually by large amounts. The most critical limit state is the soil failure limit state which is used in the Simplified Stiffness Method to keep the reinforced soil zone at working stress conditions assumed for geosynthetic MSE walls under operational conditions.     

Effects of facing,reinforcement stiffness,toe resistance,and height on reinforced walls

This study numerically investigated the combined effect of reinforcement and facing stiffness, wall height, and toe resistance on the behavior of reinforced soil (RS) walls under working stress conditions. For RS walls with vertical segmental block facing, parametric analyses showed that the combined effect of the facing stiffness, wall height, and toe resistance on the distribution of the maximum reinforcement load with depth may be limited to approximately 4 m above the base of the wall. Furthermore, the shape of the distribution of the reinforcement load may be a function of the combined effect of the wall height, reinforcement stiffness, toe resistance, and facing stiffness. For a given facing stiffness and fixed-base conditions, increasing the height of the wall and reinforcement stiffness may change the distribution shape of the reinforcement load from trapezoidal to the triangular. Additionally, the maximum reinforcement loads calculated using finite element analyses were compared to the values predicted by design methods found in the literature. Some limitations of those design procedures are presented and discussed.