烟草叶片中呼吸电子传递途径在缓解叶绿体PSⅡ光抑制中的作用

前期研究发现线粒体交替氧化酶(AOX)呼吸途径对叶绿体光系统II(PSII)的光抑制有明显的缓解作用。线粒体内另一条呼吸途径——细胞色素氧化酶(COX)呼吸途径是否也具有光保护作用尚不清楚。该文通过荧光快速诱导动力学和荧光淬灭分析,解析了烟草(Nicotiana tabacum)叶片中COX途径对PSII光保护的贡献及其与AOX途径的关系。结果表明,强光处理后PSII活性在所有叶片中均下降。AOX途径受抑明显加速了叶片PSII活性的下降。而当COX途径受抑后,叶片PSII活性的下降与水处理的对照叶片无明显差异。当AOX途径与COX途径同时受抑时,叶片PSII活性的下降比单独抑制AOX途径时更严重。此外,呼吸电子传递受抑均导致叶片非光化学淬灭(NPQ)增加,AOX途径受抑导致的NPQ上调比COX途径受抑时更明显,AOX和COX途径同时受抑时NPQ的增幅最大。上述结果表明,烟草叶片中COX途径和AOX途径均参与PSⅡ的光保护。当COX途径受抑时,其光保护功能可以被AOX途径和NPQ补偿,而AOX途径的光保护作用不能被COX途径和NPQ完全补偿。     

交替氧化酶抑制剂研究进展及应用前景

交替氧化酶(alternative oxidase,AOX)是线粒体呼吸电子传递链中抗氰呼吸途径的末端氧化酶,它广泛存在于高等植物、藻类、部分真菌及原生生物中。同时,AOX也被发现存在于某些人体寄生虫中,如布氏锥虫(Trypanosoma brucei)等。布氏锥虫可引起人类"嗜睡病",不经治疗往往有致命的危险。据统计,在非洲地区每年有高达7 000多万人存在感染布氏锥虫病的风险。值得注意的是,人类细胞中不含有AOX。因此,AOX可能是治疗该类疾病最有效的潜在靶标。现主要就布氏锥虫交替氧化酶的特点及其抑制剂的设计和作用效果进行阐述,并展望AOX抑制剂的应用前景及研究挑战。     

交替氧化酶结构和功能研究进展

交替氧化酶(a lternative ox idase,AOX)是植物线粒体呼吸链中抗氰呼吸途径(cyan ide-res istan t resp irationpathw ay)的末端氧化酶,它广泛存在于高等植物及部分真菌和藻类中。交替氧化酶是一种双铁羧基蛋白(d i-ironcarboxy late prote in),它不仅具有其它双铁羧基蛋白共有的结构特点以及去除分子氧的功能,更重要的是它还可以通过改变自身结构等方式来主动调节抗氰呼吸途径的运行程度,进而调节细胞多方面的代谢和功能,以适应环境条件的改变,增强植物适应各种逆境的能力,调节植物生长速率,并与细胞凋亡和光合作用相关。本文主要对交替氧化酶的结构与其在植物体内功能的最新研究进展进行综述。     

双氯芬酸对烟草BY-2细胞呼吸代谢的影响

双氯芬酸是一种新的全球性环境污染物,严重影响植物的生长发育,但其作用机制至今尚不清楚。本研究从双氯芬酸对烟草BY-2细胞呼吸代谢和活性氧代谢的影响入手,探讨双氯芬酸抑制植物细胞生长的作用机理。结果表明,双氯芬酸处理1 d后,显著抑制了烟草BY-2细胞的生长,引起细胞内活性氧(ROS)的爆发和积累,并导致烟草BY-2细胞死亡。双氯芬酸对烟草BY-2细胞的糖酵解途径(EMP)、三羧酸循环(TCA)和戊糖磷酸途径(PPP)三个碳代谢途径以及细胞色素氧化酶(COX)和交替氧化酶(AOX)参与的两条呼吸电子传递途径均有即时抑制作用。双氯芬酸可能通过抑制细胞线粒体呼吸电子传递链的活性,导致电子从呼吸链泄漏加速ROS的形成,并反馈抑制呼吸碳代谢途径,进而导致细胞内物质代谢和能量代谢紊乱,这些是双氯芬酸抑制烟草BY-2细胞生长、导致细胞死亡的重要原因。     

高等植物的交替氧化酶研究进展

交替氧化酶(Alternative Oxidase,AOX)广泛存在于高等植物、藻类和原生生物线粒体内膜。从主呼吸链的辅酶Q分岔,是氧化辅酶Q、还原氧分子生成水的另一终端氧化酶。氧化过程没有质子穿膜运动、热量以产热方式散发。产热植物中交替氧化产生的热量使花粉发出芳香味吸引虫传粉。推测植物AOX使植物在环境胁迫下维持呼吸,调节能量平衡,抵抗氧化胁迫,保持三羧酸循环的运行。AOX是首次发现的双铁羧酸蛋白质成员中的膜蛋白质,AOX与膜分离后容易失活,至今尚未有三级结构的报导,只有二级结构的2种假设模式,最新的模式AOX为膜界面蛋白质而不是跨膜蛋白。最近我们的研究表明有2个途径可获得适量有活性的AOX:建立优化的pFLAG-1-AOX大肠杆菌超量表达系统;从产热植物如斑叶阿若母(Arum maculatum)花序组织线粒体分离纯化有活性的AOX。     

植物交替氧化酶(AOX)在大肠杆菌中优化表达

植物交替氧化酶(Alternative Oxidase,AOX)位于高等植物线粒体内膜,从细胞色素途径的辅酶Q分岔,催化4个电子还原氧分子形成水的另一终端氧化酶。分离纯化有活性的AOX比较困难。本文研究AOX原核表达,选择pFLAG-1分泌表达载体,用异丙基硫代-β-D-半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导AOX优化表达,pFLAG-1-AOX大肠杆菌优化表达条件为:宿主DH5α、温度37℃、细胞密度OD600=0.6、IPTG浓度0.2mmol/L,诱导后60min收获细胞;获得少量可溶的细胞外周质AOX和大量不溶的AOX,为深入研究AOX打下基础,同时为研究膜蛋白原核表达提供依据。     

烟草叶片中呼吸电子传递途径在缓解叶绿体PSII光抑制中的作用

前期研究发现线粒体交替氧化酶(AOX)呼吸途径对叶绿体光系统II(PSII)的光抑制有明显的缓解作用。线粒体内另一条呼吸途径——细胞色素氧化酶(COX)呼吸途径是否也具有光保护作用尚不清楚。该文通过荧光快速诱导动力学和荧光淬灭分析,解析了烟草(Nicotianatabacum)叶片中COX途径对PSII光保护的贡献及其与AOX途径的关系。结果表明,强光处理后PSII活性在所有叶片中均下降。AOX途径受抑明显加速了叶片PSII活性的下降。而当COX途径受抑后,叶片PSII活性的下降与水处理的对照叶片无明显差异。当AOX途径与COX途径同时受抑时,叶片PSII活性的下降比单独抑制AOX途径时更严重。此外,呼吸电子传递受抑均导致叶片非光化学淬灭(NPQ)增加,AOX途径受抑导致的NPQ上调比COX途径受抑时更明显, AOX和COX途径同时受抑时NPQ的增幅最大。上述结果表明,烟草叶片中COX途径和AOX途径均参与PSII的光保护。当COX途径受抑时,其光保护功能可以被AOX途径和NPQ补偿,而AOX途径的光保护作用不能被COX途径和NPQ完全补偿。     

温度上升提高了黄瓜叶片线粒体交替氧化酶呼吸途径对光破坏防御作用的贡献

本文以黄瓜为实验材料,研究了不同温度下植物叶片交替氧化酶呼吸途径(AOX途径)对光破坏防御贡献的差异及其机理。结果表明,低温不仅抑制了AOX途径的活性,还抑制了"Malate-OAA"穿梭,导致光合作用产生的过剩还原力NAD(P)H的消耗减少,低温下抑制AOX途径后没有加重叶片光抑制;而高温下AOX途径活性的上调有效消耗了通过"Malate-OAA"穿梭机制转运而来的过剩还原力,缓解了光合电子传递链的过度还原,并且AOX途径受抑后,叶片光抑制显著增加。上述结果表明AOX途径在低温下对光破坏防御的贡献受到明显限制,而在高温下AOX途径的上调增加了其对光破坏防御的贡献。     

短日照对休眠诱导期油桃花芽两条电子传递途径的调控

以油桃品种“曙光”为试材,采用呼吸抑制剂法研究了短日照处理下花芽在休眠诱导期两条电子传递途径的发生和运行情况.结果表明:花芽总呼吸速率(Vt)和细胞色素电子传递途径呼吸速率(ρ'Vcyt)均呈双峰曲线变化,短日照可同步诱导两者的一次峰前移、二次峰后延,抑制ρ’Vcyt,但对Vt无显著影响.交替途径容量(Valt)和实际运行活性(ρValt)亦呈双峰曲线,两者基本同步变化,短日照可以显著诱导Valt和ρValt的前期高峰期提前,提高Valt和ρValt,对后期高峰期无明显作用.细胞色素电子传递途径呼吸速率下降和交替途径呼吸速率上升是油桃花芽休眠诱导期的重要特点.从两条电子传递途径的呼吸速率对总呼吸速率的贡献率来看,细胞色素电子传递途径仍是主要电子传递途径,交替途径起辅助与分流作用.     

杂交酸模叶片线粒体交替氧化酶呼吸途径在光破坏防御中的作用

以杂交酸模(Rumex K-1)为试材,研究了不同光强下线粒体交替氧化酶呼吸途径(AOX途径)对酸模叶片光破坏的防御作用.结果表明:在200 μmol·m-2·s-1弱光下,用水杨基羟肟酸抑制AOX途径后,Rumex K-1叶片的PSⅡ实际光化学效率、光合线性电子传递速率以及光合放氧速率均显著下降,非还原性QB反应中心显著升高,加重了叶片的光抑制,而活性氧清除机制上调,避免了活性氧的过量积累,部分缓解了Rumex K-1叶片的光抑制;在800 μmol·m-2·s-1强光下,AOX途径受抑,导致Rumex K-1叶片发生严重的光抑制,而此时活性氧清除机制的上调不足以缓解活性氧过量的积累.无论在强光还是弱光下,AOX途径在Rumex K-1叶片的光破坏防御过程中都起着重要作用,而且在强光下,AOX途径对叶片的光破坏防御作用是叶绿体内其他光破坏防御途径所不能代替的.     

Functional expression of plant alternative oxidase decreases antimycin A-induced reactive oxygen species production in human cells

Alternative oxidase (AOX) plays a pivotal role in cyanide-resistance respiration in the mitochondria of plants, fungi and some protists. Here we show that AOX from thermogenic skunk cabbage successfully conferred cyanide resistance to human cells. In galactose medium, HeLa cells with mitochondria-targeted AOX proteins were found to have significantly less reactive oxygen species production in response to antimycin-A exposure, a specific inhibitor of respiratory complex III. These results suggest that skunk cabbage AOX can be used to create an alternative respiration pathway, which might be important for therapy against various mitochondrial diseases.     

The alternative pathway in cucumber seedlings under low temperature stress was enhanced by salicylic acid

The alternative pathway is a cyanide-resistant and non-phosphorylatory electron transport pathway in mitochondria of higher plants. Alternative oxidase (AOX) is the terminal oxidase of this pathway. Our present study investigated the effect of exogenous salicylic acid (SA) on alternative pathway in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) seedlings under low temperature stress. Results showed that during the process of low temperature stress, the alternative pathway capacity was enhanced as AOX expression increased in SA pretreated seedlings. Compared with seedlings without SA pretreatment, slower decrease of relative water content and lower levels of electrolyte leakage, H₂O₂ and malonyldialdehyde content were detected in SA pretreated seedlings. These results indicated that SA could alleviate the injury caused by low temperature on cucumber seedlings. Since the special protective functions of alternative pathway and AOX in plants, we suggested that the alternative pathway was related to SA-mediated plant resistance to environmental stresses such as low temperature.     

Identification and characterization of an alternative oxidase in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae

Mitochondria of Metarhizium anisopliae contain an alternative oxidase (AOX), which reduces oxygen to water by accepting electrons directly from ubiquinol. AOX activity is demonstrated in situ as a constitutive enzyme. Greatest activity of AOX appears at the beginning and at the end of the fungal developmental cycle, germination of aerial conidia and the formation of submerged conidia, respectively. Changes in nutritional conditions, e.g., the presence of host insect cuticle or nutrient starvation had no effect on the induction of AOX activity. Antimycin A, an electron transport chain inhibitor, induced AOX activity. Cloning of the AOX DNA and the alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of a segment of the AOX gene from M. anisopliae shows structural similarities with other AOX sequences with differing levels of variation when compared with homologous sequences from plants, yeasts, and filamentous fungi. Alternative oxidase in entomopathogenic fungi may have a positive contribution to ecological fitness.     

The Absence of Alternative Oxidase AOX1A Results in Altered Response of Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation to Increasing CO2 in Arabidopsis thaliana

In higher plants, the mitochondrial electron transport chain has non-phosphorylating alternative pathways that include the alternative terminal oxidase (AOX). This alternative pathway has been suggested to act as a sink for dissipating excess reducing power, minimizing oxidative stress and possibly optimizing photosynthesis in response to changing conditions. The expression patterns of the AOX genes have been well characterized under different growth conditions, particularly in response to light and temperature stress. Additionally, it has been suggested that mitochondrial electron transport is important for avoiding chloroplast over-reduction and balancing energy partitioning among photosynthesis, photorespiration and respiration. Nonetheless, the role AOX plays in optimizing photosynthetic carbon metabolism is unclear. Therefore, the response of photosynthesis to the disruption of AOX was investigated in the Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA mutant aox1a (SALK_084897). Gas exchange analysis revealed a lower net CO(2) assimilation rate (A) at high CO(2) concentrations in the aox1a mutant compared to wild type. This decrease in A was accompanied by a lower maximum electron transport rate and quantum yield of PSII, and higher excitation pressure on PSII and non-photochemical quenching. The aox1a mutant also exhibited a lower estimated rate of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate regeneration, and the ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate content was lower at high CO(2) concentrations, suggesting an ATP limitation of the Calvin-Benson cycle. Additionally, the activity of the malate-oxaloacetate shuttle was lower in the mutant compared to wild type. These results indicate that AOX is important for optimizing rates of photosynthetic CO(2) assimilation in response to rising CO(2) concentration by balancing the NAD(P)H/ATP ratio and rates of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate regeneration within the chloroplast.     

Leaf respiration and alternative oxidase in field-grown alpine grasses respond to natural changes in temperature and light

? We report the first investigation of changes in electron partitioning via the alternative respiratory pathway (AP) and alternative oxidase (AOX) protein abundance in field-grown plants and their role in seasonal acclimation of respiration. ? We sampled two alpine grasses native to New Zealand, Chionochloa rubra and Chionochloa pallens, from field sites of different altitudes, over 1 yr and also intensively over a 2-wk period. ? In both species, respiration acclimated to seasonal changes in temperature through changes in basal capacity (R??) but not temperature sensitivity (E?). In C. pallens, acclimation of respiration may be associated with a higher AOX : cytochrome c oxidase (COX) protein abundance ratio. Oxygen isotope discrimination (D), which reflects relative changes in AP electron partitioning, correlated positively with daily integrated photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in both species over seasonal timescales. Respiratory parameters, the AOX : COX protein ratio and D were stable over a 2-wk period, during which significant temperature changes were experienced in the field. ? We conclude that respiration in Chionochloa spp. acclimates strongly to seasonal, but not to short-term, temperature variation. Alternative oxidase appears to be involved in the plant response to both seasonal changes in temperature and daily changes in light, highlighting the complexity of the function of AOX in the field.     

Up-regulation of mitochondrial alternative oxidase concomitant with chloroplast over-reduction by excess light

Alternative oxidase (AOX), the unique terminal oxidase in plant mitochondria, catalyzes the energy-wasteful cyanide (CN)-resistant respiration. Although it has been suggested that AOX might prevent chloroplast over-reduction through the efficient dissipation of excess reducing equivalents, direct evidence for this in the physiological context has been lacking. In this study, we examined the mitochondrial respiratory properties, especially AOX, connected to the accumulation of reducing equivalents in the chloroplasts and the activities of enzymes needed to transport the reducing equivalents. We used Arabidopsis thaliana mutants defective in cyclic electron flow around PSI, in which the reducing equivalents accumulate in the chloroplast stroma due to an unbalanced ATP/NADPH production ratio. These mutants showed higher activities of the enzymes needed to transport the reducing equivalents even in low-light growth conditions. The amounts of AOX protein and CN-resistant respiration in the mutants were also higher than those in the wild type. After high-light treatment, AOX, even in the wild type, was preferentially up-regulated concomitant with the accumulation of reducing equivalents in the chloroplasts and an increase in the activities of enzymes needed to transport reducing equivalents. These results indicate that AOX can dissipate the excess reducing equivalents, which are transported from the chloroplasts, and serve in efficient photosynthesis.     

Molecular Genetic Alteration of Plant Respiration (Silencing and Overexpression of Alternative Oxidase in Transgenic Tobacco)

The alternative oxidase (AOX) of plant mitochondria is encoded by the nuclear gene Aox1. Sense and antisense DNA constructs of Nicotiana tabacum Aox1 were introduced into tobacco, and transgenic plants with both increased and decreased levels of mitochondrial AOX protein were identified. Suspension cells derived from wild-type and transgenic plants were grown in heterotrophic batch culture. Transgenic cells with increased AOX protein had an increased capacity for cyanide-resistant, salicylhydroxamic acid-sensitive respiration compared to wild-type cells, whereas transgenic cells with decreased AOX protein had a decreased capacity for such respiration. Thus, genetic alteration of the level of AOX protein was sufficient to alter the capacity for electron transport through the alternative pathway. Under our standard growth conditions, "antisense" cells with dramatically reduced levels of AOX protein had growth and respiration rates similar to the wild type. However, whereas wild-type cells were able to grow under conditions that severely suppressed cytochrome pathway activity, antisense cells could not survive this treatment. This suggests that a critical function of AOX may be to support respiration when the cytochrome pathway is impaired. The much higher level of AOX protein in "sense" cells compared to the wild type did not appreciably alter the steady-state partitioning of electrons between the cytochrome path and the alternative pathway in vivo, suggesting that this partitioning may be subject to additional regulatory factors.     

Identification,expression, and taxonomic distribution of alternative oxidases in non-angiosperm plants

Alternative oxidase (AOX) is a terminal ubiquinol oxidase present in the respiratory chain of all angiosperms investigated to date, but AOX distribution in other members of the Viridiplantae is less clear. We assessed the taxonomic distribution of AOX using bioinformatics. Multiple sequence alignments compared AOX proteins and examined amino acid residues involved in AOX catalytic function and post-translational regulation. Novel AOX sequences were found in both Chlorophytes and Streptophytes and we conclude that AOX is widespread in the Viridiplantae. AOX multigene families are common in non-angiosperm plants and the appearance of AOX1 and AOX2 subtypes pre-dates the divergence of the Coniferophyta and Magnoliophyta. Residues involved in AOX catalytic function are highly conserved between Chlorophytes and Streptophytes, while AOX post-translational regulation likely differs in these two lineages. We demonstrate experimentally that an AOX gene is present in the moss Physcomitrella patens and that the gene is transcribed. Our findings suggest that AOX will likely exert an influence on plant respiration and carbon metabolism in non-angiosperms such as green algae, bryophytes, liverworts, lycopods, ferns, gnetophytes, and gymnosperms and that further research in these systems is required.     

Cytological evaluation of the effect of azoxystrobin and alternative oxidase inhibitors in Botrytis cinerea

Azoxystrobin (AZ), a strobilurin-derived fungicide, is known to inhibit mitochondrial respiration in fungi by blocking the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Germination was strongly inhibited when Botrytis cinerea spore suspension was treated with AZ and the alternative oxidase (AOX) inhibitors, salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) and n-propyl gallate. However, chemical death indicators trypan blue and propidium iodide showed that those spores were still alive. When the spore suspension in the AZ and SHAM solution was replaced with distilled water, the germination rate almost recovered, at least during the first 2 days of incubation with AZ and SHAM solution. No morphological alteration was detected in the cells treated with AZ and SHAM, especially in mitochondria, using transmission electron microscopy. Therefore, simultaneous application of AZ and AOX inhibitors has a fungistatic, rather than a fungicidal, action.