回流式循环流化床烟气脱硫的工程试验研究

在银川热电厂5号炉(150t/h)回流式循环流化床烟气脱硫装置开展了半干法循环流化床烟气脱硫技术的工程试验研究,该脱硫装置的设计处理烟气量为16000m^3／h。脱硫塔内部及顶部采用了特殊回流结构设计,实现物料塔内内循环。减少除尘装置入口浓度。通过工业试验,研究了钙硫比、喷水量等参数对系统脱硫效率的影响。试验结果表明,当钙硫比为1．3、塔内温度70℃、塔内浓度为800g/m^3时,系统脱硫效率可以达到90％,粉尘排放浓度为80mg/m^3,脱硫系统阻力小于1．5kPa。     

循环流化床烟气脱硫中物料平衡计算及试验研究

通过对干法烟气脱硫物料平衡计算,确定脱硫塔内固体颗粒物平衡浓度和达到平衡浓度所需要的时间, 并和实测值加以比较．在一台循环流化床烟气脱硫装置上,研究了固体颗粒物浓度对装置脱硫效率影响、阻力特性以及固体颗粒物循环对脱硫装置稳定运行的影响．结果表明,固体颗粒物的循环可以使脱硫效率提高10％-15％, 脱硫系统物料循环平衡的时间大约为30 min．综合实验结果,循环流化床烟气脱硫塔内固体颗粒物浓度宜控制在 600-1 000 g／m3之间．     

循环流化床常温半干法烟气脱硫技术的工程示范研究

在清华大学试验电厂开展了常温半干法循环流化床烟气脱硫技术的工程示范研究。示范装置的设计处理烟气量为20.000Nm^3／h。脱硫塔内部采用了特殊的结构．以实现物料的内循环。针对影响脱硫效率的主要因素,如反应塔出口烟气温度与绝热饱和露点的温度差(ASAT),钙硫比,床内物料浓度。以及CaCl2添加剂等,进行了一系列的试验。试验表明,当钙硫比为1．3,ASAT为7C时,脱硫效率可以达到85％;在同样条件下,在石灰浆中添加少量的CaCl2,脱硫效率可达到90%。同时,对系统脱硫过程进行理论分析,提出增加脱硫离子反应时间的方法。图6参7     

半干法烟气脱硫整体化模型

建立了半干法烟气脱硫整体化模型,通过模型分析确定了半干法烟气脱硫工艺各阶段的反应机理.结果表明:在脱硫塔内石灰浆滴干燥的常速阶段初期,控制脱硫反应的环节是石灰的溶解阻力;在常速阶段后期,反应过程由气膜扩散阻力控制;在降速阶段,限制脱硫反应进行的阻力是反应物向反应区域的扩散;在脱硫塔内干燥后阶段以及布袋除尘器中,气固反应的控制阻力是SO2通过脱硫产物层的扩散.模型计算结果与试验结果较吻合.     

烟气脱硫循环流化床内的温度分布与干燥特性

分析了烟气循环流化床内的绝热饱和温度,设计了烟气脱硫循环流化床内温度测量装置,在烟气脱硫中试试验台上用该装置测得了床内烟气温度分布和湿球温度分布。试验结果表明．在烟气循环流化床中,在喷入增湿水后,存在烟气温度逐渐降低和增湿水温逐渐升高两个不同的温度场。烟气温度经过快速降温及缓慢降温两个阶段;而增湿水温度快速升高并蒸发,烟气温度与增湿水温度在液滴干燥完毕时趋于一致。试验结果还表明,烟气循环流化床内雾化液滴的干燥时间约为1．5～2．0S。     

与袋式除尘器配套的半干法烟气脱硫技术及应用

循环流化床半干法烟气脱硫除尘一体化工艺（DSDFP）是对半干法脱硫丁艺的改进。该工艺的特点是在脱硫塔的前后分别设置一台电场静电除尘器和一台低压脉冲袋式除尘器，电场静电除尘器对烟气进行预除尘，袋式除尘器对脱硫塔出口的高含尘烟气进行除尘。银川热电厂150t／h燃煤锅炉应用了DSDFP系统并进行了运行试验。运行试验结果表明，当进料钙硫比（Ca／S）为1．3、近绝热饱和温度（△T为15℃时，系统的脱硫效率可达85％，烟尘排放浓度小于50mg／m^3，满足目前的环保要求。针对DSDFP系统在经过一段时间运行后出现的布袋除尘器压差增大、锅炉负压不稳定、脱硫塔壁面结垢、塔内喷嘴堵塞等问题，经分析采用控制喷水量、优化水喷嘴布置、严格控制雾化角和喷射距离、在脱硫塔内采用双流体喷嘴、合理设计塔内烟气流场等措施进行解决。     

低阻力增效器对湿法脱硫的影响

开发了液—气反应低阻力增效器装置,通过在烟气量为10000 m~3/h的中试湿法脱硫平台上进行试验测试,分析了增效器对脱硫效率的影响。试验结果表明增效器的使用能明显地提升湿法脱硫的效率,当液气比为16 L/m~3时,可将出口SO_2浓度由80 mg/m~3降低至26 mg/m~3,增效器所带来的阻力在70 Pa左右,实现了超低排放的目标。同时在安装了增效器的脱硫塔上,研究了液气比、烟气流速对脱硫效率的影响,结果表明,液气比的提高、烟气流速的降低均会对增效器带来正面的影响。     

废弃物湿法烟气脱硫研究

湿法烟气脱硫以其高效获得了广泛的应用，但国外成熟技术的造价难以为我国接受。本文利用几种常见废弃物在填料吸收塔上对湿法烟气硫脱及其阻力特性和湿降问题进行了大量的试验研究，开发出了一种具有较高脱硫效率，较低投资和运行费用的湿法烟气脱硫技术，提出了较低温度下锅炉烟气排放的解决办法。     

高硫煤脱硫技术试验情况

中日合作在山东黄岛发电厂对燃用高硫煤的670t／h锅炉，采用半干式旋转喷雾法脱硫技术进行试验。文中介绍脱硫原理、设备概况、主要试验内容和结果，试验中出现的问题和解决措施，自1994年10月以来两年半的试验，保持脱硫烟气量25×104m3／h（标态），Ca／S为1．4，生石灰纯度70％，脱硫效率达到70％以上，达到预期试验目标。该脱硫法的能耗、水耗、电耗低，投资省，占地小，对现有机组改造较有吸引力。     

CuO/γ-Al2 O3干法烟气脱硫

采用自制的CuO／γ—Al2O3烟气脱硫剂，在固定床流动反应器上进行模拟烟气脱硫试验，定量研究了不同组分样品的脱硫活性，分析了载铜量、SO2浓度、空间速度、反应温度等对脱硫效果的影响．结果表明，CuO在载体上分布的阈值为0．47mg／m^2，当CuO分布低于阈值时，在脱硫温度400℃、空间速度11200h^-1，S／Cu摩尔比低于理论值1的情况下，其脱硫效率可高达95％以上．     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

Contents in Volume 23,2014

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NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Controls on the Karaha–Telaga Bodas geothermal reservoir,Indonesia

Karaha–Telaga Bodas is a partially vapor-dominated, fracture-controlled geothermal system located adjacent to Galunggung Volcano in western Java, Indonesia. The geothermal system consists of: (1) a caprock, ranging from several hundred to 1600 m in thickness, and characterized by a steep, conductive temperature gradient and low permeability; (2) an underlying vapor-dominated zone that extends below sea level; and (3) a deep liquid-dominated zone with measured temperatures up to 353 °C. Heat is provided by a tabular granodiorite stock encountered at about 3 km depth. A structural analysis of the geothermal system shows that the effective base of the reservoir is controlled either by the boundary between brittle and ductile deformational regimes or by the closure and collapse of fractures within volcanic rocks located above the brittle/ductile transition. The base of the caprock is determined by the distribution of initially low-permeability lithologies above the reservoir; the extent of pervasive clay alteration that has significantly reduced primary rock permeabilities; the distribution of secondary minerals deposited by descending waters; and, locally, by a downward change from a strike-slip to an extensional stress regime. Fluid-producing zones are controlled by both matrix and fracture permeabilities. High matrix permeabilities are associated with lacustrine, pyroclastic, and epiclastic deposits. Productive fractures are those showing the greatest tendency to slip and dilate under the present-day stress conditions. Although the reservoir appears to be in pressure communication across its length, fluid, and gas chemistries vary laterally, suggesting the presence of isolated convection cells.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.     

Assessment methods of material ageing using Sdobyrev''s creep rupture model

The physical aspects of the activation energy, in higher and high temperatures, of the metal creep process were examined. The research results of creep-rupture in a uniaxial stress state and the criterion of creep-rupture in biaxial stress states, at two temperatures, are then presented. For these studies creep-rupture, taking case iron as an example the energy and pseudoenergy activation was determined. For complex stress states the criterion of creep-rupture was taken to be Sdobyrev's, i.e. σ_red = σ₁ β + (1 − β)σ_i, where: σ₁-maximal principal stress, σ_i-stress intensity, β-material constant (at variable temperature β = β(T)). The methods of assessment of the material ageing grade are given in percentages of ageing of new material in the following mechanical properties: 1) creep strength in uniaxial stress state, 2) activation energy in uniaxial stress state, 3) criterion creep strength in complex stress states, 4) activation pseudoenergy in complex stress states. The methods 1) and 3) are the relatively simplest because they result from experimental investigations only at nominal temperature of the structure work, however, for methods 2) and 4) it is necessary to perform the experimental investigations at least at two temperatures.