SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE RADIATION COMPONENTS AT ZHONGSHAN STATION

A preliminary analysis of some characteristics of the radiation components is made by using the surface radiation data obtained from February 1990 to January 1991 at Zhongshan Station. The result shows that the fluxes of direct radiation and global radiation are strong with higher atmospheric transparency,and the surface can absorb large amount of radiation energy in warm season. The surface loses heat energy in cold season due to the seasonal variations of the surface albedo and shortwave radiation. The variation of net longwave radiation is related to cloud amount and surface air temperature. The property of net radiation is similar to other Antarctic coastal stations but differs greatly from Antarctic inland area.     

Cloudiness variations over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during 1971–2004

With Empirical Orthogonal Function （EOF） and trend analysis method adopted, the spatio-temporal variation of total cloud amount is analyzed for 75 stations on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during the period 1971-2004. Analysis indicates that the total cloud amount decreases from the southeast to the northwest of the plateau, and that the annual and seasonal variations in total cloud amount both show an apparent declining tendency over the past decades. Correlation analysis demonstrates that the total cloud amount is negative with sunshine duration and diurnal temperature range （DTR）, and is positive with precipitation and the relative humidity, respectively. The negative correlation is consistent with the radiative effect of cloud, while the positive correlation between total cloud amount and precipitation is obscured because of the influence of topographic factors. Discussion implies that the decrease of total cloud amount is possibly due to the variation of atmospheric aerosol content and ozone concentration over the plateau, although it is difficult to quantify the driving force mechanism up to now.     

Influence of complex topography on global solar radiation in the Yangtze River Basin

Global solar radiation（GSR） is the most direct source and form of global energy, and calculation of its quantity is highly complex due to influences of local topography and terrain inter-shielding. Digital elevation model（DEM） data as a representation of the complex terrain and multiplicity condition produces a series of topographic factors（e.g. slope, aspect, etc.）. Based on 1 km resolution DEM data, meteorological observations and NOAA-AVHRR remote sensing data, a distributed model for the calculation of GSR over rugged terrain within the Yangtze River Basin has been developed. The overarching model permits calculation of astronomical solar radiation for rugged topography and comprises a distributed direct solar radiation model, a distributed diffuse radiation model and a distributed terrain reflectance radiation model. Using the developed model, a quantitative simulation of the GSR space distribution and visualization has been undertaken, with results subsequently analyzed with respect to locality and terrain. Analyses suggest that GSR magnitude is seasonally affected, while the degree of influence was found to increase in concurrence with increasing altitude. Moreover, GSR magnitude exhibited clear spatial variation with respect to the dominant local aspect; GSR values associated with the sunny southern slopes were significantly greater than those associated with shaded slopes. Error analysis indicates a mean absolute error of 12.983 MJm-2 and a mean relative error of 3.608%, while the results based on a site authentication procedure display an absolute error of 22.621 MJm-2 and a relative error of 4.626%.     

海河流域及周边地区太阳辐射变化成因

Solar radiation is an important driving force for the formation and evolution of climate system. Analysis of change in solar radiation is helpful in understanding mechanism of climate change. In this study, the temporal and spatial variations of solar radiation and the cause of the change in solar radiation have been analyzed based on meteorological data from 46 national meteorological stations and aerosol index data from TOMS over the Haihe River Basin and surrounding areas. The results have shown that solar radiation and direct radiation significantly decreased, while scattered radiation increased during the period 1957–2008. Spatially, the decreasing trend of solar radiation was more and more significant from low population density areas to high population density areas. The spatial distribution of increase in aerosol index is consistent with that of decrease in solar radiation. The increase in aerosols resulting from human activities was an important reason for the decrease in solar radiation.     

Radiative forcing over China due to albedo change caused by land cover change during 1990–2010

Land cover change affects surface radiation budget and energy balance by chang- ing surface albedo and further impacts the regional and global climate. In this article, high spatial and temporal resolution satellite products were used to analyze the driving mechanism for surface albedo change caused by land cover change during 1990-2010. In addition, the annual-scale radiative forcing caused by surface albedo changes in China＇s 50 ecological regions were calculated to reveal the biophysical mechanisms of land cover change affecting climate change at regional scale. Our results showed that the national land cover changes were mainly caused by land reclamation, grassland desertification and urbanization in past 20 years, which were almost induced by anthropogenic activities. Grassland and forest area decreased by 0.60% and 0.11%, respectively. The area of urban and farmland increased by 0.60% and 0.19%, respectively. The mean radiative forcing caused by land cover changes during 1990-2010 was 0.062 W/m2 in China, indicating a warming climate effect. However, spatial heterogeneity of radiative forcing was huge among different ecological regions. Farmland conversing to urban construction land, the main type of land cover change for the urban and suburban agricultural ecological region in Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan region, caused an albedo reduction by 0.00456 and a maximum positive radiative forcing of 0.863 WIm2, which was presented as warming climate effects. Grassland and forest conversing to farmland, the main type of land cover change for the temperate humid agricultural and wetland ecological region in Sanjiang Plain, caused an albedo increase by 0.00152 and a maximum negative radiative forcing of 0.184 W/m2, implying cooling climate effects.     

A Wind Tunnel Investigation of the Shear Stress with A Blowing Sand Cloud

In a blowing sand system,the wind provides the driving forces for the particle movement while the moving particles exert the opposite forces to the wind by extracting its momentum.The wind-sand interaction that can be characterized by shear stress and force exerted on the wind by moving particles results in the modification of wind profiles.Detailed wind pro-files re-adapted to blown sand movement are measured in a wind tunnel for different grain size populations and at differ-ent free-stream wind velocities.The shear stress with a blowing sand cloud and force exerted on the wind by moving par-ticles are calculated from the measured wind velocity profiles.The results suggest that the wind profiles with presence of blowing sand cloud assume convex-upward curves on the u(z)-ln(z) plot compared with the straight lines characterizing the velocity profiles of clean wind,and they can be better fitted by power function than log-linear function.The exponent of the power function ranging from 0.1 to 0.17 tends to increase with an increase in wind velocity but decrease with an increase in particle size.The force per unit volume exerted on the wind by blown sand drift that is calculated based on the empirical power functions for the wind velocity profiles is found to decrease with height.The particle-induced force makes the total shear stress with blowing sand cloud partitioned into air-borne stress that results from the wind velocity gradient and grain-borne stress that results from the upward or downward movement of particles.The air-borne stress in-creases with an increase in height,while the grain-borne stress decreases with an increase in height.The air-borne shear stress at the top of sand cloud layer increases with both wind velocity and grain size,implying that it increases with sand transport rate for a given grain size.The shear stress with a blowing sand cloud is also closely related to the sand transport rate.Both the total shear stress and grain-borne stress on the grain top is directly proportional to the squ     

Monthly calibration and optimization of ?ngstr?m-Prescott equation coefficients for comprehensive agricultural divisions in China

?ngstr?m-Prescott equation (AP) is the algorithm recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations for calculating the surface solar radiation (R_s) to support the estimation of crop evapotranspiration.Thus,the a_s and b_s coefficients in the AP are vital.This study aims to obtain coefficients a_s and b_s in the AP,which are optimized for China’s comprehensive agricultural divisions.The average monthly solar radiation and relative sunshine duration data at 121 stations from 1957–2016 were collected.Using data from 1957 to 2010,we calculated the monthly a_s and b_s coefficients for each subregion by least-squares regression.Then,taking the observation values of R_s from 2011 to 2016 as the true values,we estimated and compared the relative accuracy of R_s calculated using the regression values of coefficients a_s and b_s and that calculated with the FAO recommended coefficients.The monthly coefficients,a_s and b_s,of each subregion are significantly different,both temporally and spatially,from the FAO recommended coefficients.The relative error range (0–54%) of R_s calculated via the regression values of the a_s and b_s coefficients is better than the relative error range (0–77%) of R_s calculated using the FAO suggested coefficients.The station-mean relative error was reduced by 1%to 6%.However,the regression values of the a_s and b_s coefficients performed worse in certain months and agricultural subregions during verification.Therefore,we selected the a_s and b_s coefficients with the minimum R_(s )estimation error as the final coefficients and constructed a coefficient recommendation table for 36 agricultural production and management subregions in China.These coefficient recommendations enrich the case study of coefficient calibration for the AP in China and can improve the accuracy of calculating R_s and crop evapotranspiration based on existing data.     

Radiation balance and the response of albedo to environmental factors above two alpine ecosystems in the eastern Tibetan Plateau

Understanding the energy balance on the Tibetan Plateau is important for better prediction of global climate change. To characterize the energy balance on the Plateau, we examined the radiation balance and the response of albedo to environmental factors above an alpine meadow and an alpine wetland surfaces in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, using 2014 data. Although our two sites belong to the same climatic background, and are close geographically, the annual incident solar radiation at the alpine meadow site(6,447 MJ/(m2·a)) was about 1.1 times that at the alpine wetland site(6,012 MJ/(m2·a)),due to differences in the cloudiness between our two sites. The alpine meadow and the alpine wetland emitted about 38%and 42%, respectively, of annual incident solar radiation back into atmosphere in the form of net longwave radiation; and they reflected about 22% and 18%, respectively, of the annual incident solar radiation back into atmosphere in the form of shortwave radiation. The annual net radiation was 2,648 and 2,544 MJ/(m2·a) for the alpine meadow site and the alpine wetland site, respectively, accounting for only about 40% of the annual incident solar radiation, significantly lower than the global mean. At 30-min scales, surface albedo exponentially decreases with the increase of the solar elevation angle; and it linearly decreases with the increase of soil-water content for our two sites. But those relationships are significantly influenced by cloudiness and are site-specific.     

Analysis of water vapour flux between alpine wetlands underlying surface and atmosphere in the source region of the Yellow River

An underlying wetland surface comprises soil, water and vegetation and is sensitive to local climate change. Analysis of the degree of coupling between wetlands and the atmosphere and a quantitative assessment of how environmental factors influence latent heat flux have considerable scientific significance. Using data from observational tests of the Maduo Observatory of Climate and Environment of the Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resource, CAS, from June 1 to August 31, 2014, this study analysed the time-varying characteristics and causes of the degree of coupling(Ω factor)between alpine wetlands underlying surface and the atmosphere and quantitatively calculated the influences of different environmental factors(solar radiation and vapour pressure deficit) on latent heat flux. The results were as follows:(1) Due to diurnal variations of solar radiation and wind speed, a trend developed where diurnal variations of the Ω factor were small in the morning and large in the evening. Due to the vegetation growing cycle, seasonal variations of the Ω factor present a reverse "U" trend. These trends are similar to the diurnal and seasonal variations of the absolute control exercised by solar radiation over latent heat flux. This conforms to the Omega Theory.(2) The values for average absolute atmospheric factor(surface factor or total) control exercised by solar radiation and water vapour pressure are 0.20(0.02 or 0.22) and 0.005(-0.07 or-0.06) W/(m2·Pa), respectively. Generally speaking, solar radiation and water vapour pressure deficit exert opposite forces on latent heat flux.(3) At the underlying alpine wetland surface, solar radiation primarily influences latent heat flux through its direct effects(atmospheric factor controls). Water vapour pressure deficit primarily influences latent heat flux through its indirect effects(surface factor controls) on changing the surface resistance.(4) The average Ω factor in the underlying alpine wetland surface is high during the vegetation growing season, with a value of 0.38, and the degree of coupling between alpine wetland surface and atmosphere system is low. The actual measurements agree with the Omega Theory. The latent heat flux is mainly influenced by solar radiation.     

Numerical study of aerosol effect on three types of clouds and precipitation in Beijing area

Three types of rainfall (storm, moderate and slight rainfall) in the Beijing area were simulated by the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF3.2) model coupled with Milbrandt-two-moment cloud microphysics scheme, to explore the effect of aerosols on clouds and precipitation under continental and maritime aerosol scenarios. Results indicate that an increase of aerosols has various effects on clouds and precipitation. (1) The amount of surface precipitation is obviously affected. With an increase of aerosol concentration, the 48-hr total precipitation of storm and moderate rainfall decreased by 23% and 16.6%, respectively, and the 24-hr total precipitation of slight rainfall decreased by 14.0%. (2) The distribution of surface precipitation is also clearly affected. The average precipitation for a rain storm increases in most parts of western Beijing and decreases by more than 20 mm in most parts of eastern Beijing with increasing aerosol concentration. The average precipitation of moderate rainfall decreases by 0.1–5 mm in most parts of the Beijing area. The effect of increased aerosol concentration is weak for slight rainfall distribution in the study area. (3) With an increase of aerosol concentration, a narrower width and lower precipitation peak value are found in the storm rainfall, and its duration is prolonged for the high aerosol concentration. An earlier precipitation termination of moderate rainfall is found with increasing aerosol concentration. (4) The upper-air hydrometeors vary with aerosol concentration. For storm and moderate rainfall, significantly higher cloud water concentration and lower rain water were found under the continental aerosol scenario.     

Analysis of solar radiation variations over Nanjing region in recent 40 years

The data utilized in this analysis consisted of extraterrestrial radiation, global radiation, diffuse radiation, direct radiation, total cloud cover and relative sunshine. The annual variations and trend were analyzed for monthly mean daily total global, direct, and diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface and for the relations between global, direct, diffuse radiation and relative sunshine, total cloud cover. The climatological calculation equations of global and direct radiation are put forward. The results show that global and direct radiations are characterized by decrease and diffuse radiation by increase. The main causes are due to the increase of concentration of suspended particles and atmospheric turbidities rather than cloud cover variations.     

1961—2000年中国太阳辐射区域特征的初步研究

利用中国122个辐射观测站1961—2000年的逐日地面辐射资料,同期729个气象站的逐日云量资料,分析了总辐射、直接辐射和散射辐射年代际距平分布和变化。按照中国地理气候区域的特征并考虑年总辐射,将中国划分为5个不同的辐射区域。分析了各区近40 a来总辐射、直接辐射、散射辐射的年际变化。结果表明:①总辐射和直接辐射年曝辐量在1961—1990年之间呈下降趋势,在20世纪80年代达到最低值,以青藏高原西南部地区降幅最明显;在1991—2000年总辐射和直接辐射年曝辐量有回升趋势,其中青藏高原地区回升最显著,但均未达到历史最高水平。5区总辐射近40 a来下降率为:-1.24%/10a,-1.66%/10a,-1.60%/10a,-1.89%/10a和-1.93%/10a。②近40 a来散射辐射年曝辐量除东北无明显变化外,南疆和青藏高原有降低趋势,而南方有略微增加趋势;通过对云量的分析发现西北地区低云量略增加,而其他地区低云量和总云量都有不同程度的下降趋势,5区总云量近40 a来下降率为:-2.99%/10a,-1.68%/10a,-3.10%/10a,-1.17%/10a和-1.01%/10a,低云量变化率为:-1.51%/10a,4.46%/10a,-1.47%/10a,-0.89%/10a和-0.75%/10a。最后对造成辐射长期变化的原因作了初步讨论。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地散射辐射特征

本文利用塔克拉玛干沙漠大气环境观测试验站2010年总辐射、散射辐射、直接辐射观测资料分析了塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地的散射辐射变化特征和散射辐射与晴空指数、大气质量的关系。结果表明:散射辐射年曝辐量为3 628.5 MJ·m-2,占年总辐射曝辐量的59.5%,高于全国平均值;散射辐射夏季大（468.3 MJ·m-2）、冬季小（120 MJ·m-2）,日最高值基本出现在正午,夏季最高辐照度达719.2 W·m-2。与晴空指数大于0.7时相比,晴空指数小于0.7时,秋、冬季散射辐射增加。晴空指数>0.3时,散射辐射与总辐射的比值随晴空指数的增加而呈线性递减;晴空指数<0.3时,散射辐射与天文辐射的比值随晴空指数的增加基本呈直线增加。散射辐射随太阳高度角的增大呈指数递增。散射辐射的变化主要集中在大气质量小于5的范围内且随大气质量的增加而迅速降低。     

任意地形实际天气条件下小时入射短波辐射模型——以黑河流域为例

建立了一个任意地形和实际天气条件下,能够计算大范围、长时间、高时空分辨率的太阳入射短波辐射模型,模型采用简化的辐射传输参数化方案和NCEP/NCAR资料相结合的方法,并成功应用于黑河流域2002年度每小时、1 km×1 km分辨率的总辐射、直接辐射和散射辐射的计算,所应用的地面资料仅为流域的地形信息。鉴于模型中总辐射是根据直接辐射和散射辐射推算的,而黑河流域2002年度缺乏直接辐射和散射辐射实测资料,模型采用分别位于黑河山区西水、中游临泽和下游额济纳旗3套自动观测仪器的总辐射资料进行验证,西水实测总辐射与计算总辐射的R2＝0.71,而临泽和额济纳旗R2分别为0.90和0.91,但各站点均出现部分结果相差很大的情况。出现地域差异和部分结果相差很大的主要原因是由于总云量资料时空分辨率低造成的,另外计算和实测数据空间尺度的不一致也部分造成山区计算效果较差。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地总辐射变化特征及影响因子分析

利用塔克拉玛干沙漠大气环境观测站(塔中站)直接探测的总辐射资料,对流动沙漠区近地层总辐射的变化特征及影响因子进行了分析。结果表明:总辐射的连续日变化对天气现象有不同程度的反映,天气现象较少的1月逐日总辐射上下变动的离散度较小,4月最大;1月、4月、8月、10月总辐射的平均日变化曲线皆呈正态分布,与同纬度地区比较,其年变幅较小;总辐射瞬时最大值为1 182.6 W·m-2,未超过太阳常数。总辐射随总云量增多而降低,且其在碧空最大,高、中、低云时逐渐降低,阴天Ci、Ac、Sc和Cb的平均总辐射约比晴天时分别减少5%、27%、51%和59%;沙尘使总辐射降低较为显著,风沙季节总辐射日变化与地面风速日变化对应,且主要受控于湍流作用,最大值出现与热力湍流和地面风力有关。     

近50 a西安太阳辐射变化特征及相关影响因子分析

 根据常规气象观测资料以及MODIS卫星气溶胶产品,分析了西安近50 a总辐射变化特征及其相关影响因子。结果表明：西安地区1961-2005年总辐射变化经历了“持续”、“变暗”、“变亮”、“再变暗”4个阶段,西安总辐射的变化幅度较全国平均变化幅度大,其“变亮”过程开始于1985年,较全国平均时间略早;西安4个季节总辐射总体均呈现出下降趋势,其变化幅度存在一定差异。通过对云量、气溶胶、水汽压、相对湿度等影响因子的分析,水汽压和相对湿度对总辐射变化影响不明显,总云量和气溶胶的变化对西安总辐射的变化存在较显著的影响,春、夏季总辐射的变化主要受云量和气溶胶直接辐射强迫的共同影响,其中总云量的变化在一定程度上决定了总辐射变化的振幅,城市发展所导致的气溶胶增加所产生的直接辐射强迫作用可能决定了总辐射的总体下降趋势;秋、冬季节的总辐射下降趋势主要与气溶胶的直接辐射强迫有关。     

Error assessment of grid-based diffuse solar radiation models

Two grid-based diffuse solar radiation models, ESRI’s Solar Analyst (SA) and Kumar’s model (KM), were assessed using a data-independent approach where each model’s numerical results of clear sky diffuse radiation on V/U-shaped surfaces were compared with analytical results derived using each model’s assumptions. SA and KM consistently underestimate and overestimate, respectively, diffuse radiation at daily, seasonal, and annual scale relative to the analytical results based on each model’s parameterizations. Overall, SA performs better than KM in modeling diffuse radiation at most timescales. While SA and KM have similar error in calculating diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface, SA models sky view factor much better than KM, with mean absolute relative differences of 0.76% and 17.02%, respectively. KM has a large error in sky view factor as it does not consider the shading effect from surrounding terrain. Sky view factor error in SA is small and use of more zenith divisions can further reduce the error. Based on our previous study, model performance on clear sky global solar radiation was also evaluated. Overall, KM performs better than SA in global radiation as KM performs better than SA in modeling direct radiation which is the major component of global radiation.     

坡地辐射场研究及其地理学应用*

简要评述坡地辐射场理论研究与模式研究进展.讨论了坡地能量输入的背景规律、典型坡地辐射平衡各分量的计算模式,以及复杂地形辐射场模拟等问题.指出上述研究的地理学意义及可能的发展前景.     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地地表辐射收支特征研究

利用塔克拉玛干沙漠大气环境观测试验站探测的辐射数据,分析了流动沙漠区近地层辐射收支特征以及云和沙尘对其的影响。总辐射在夏季某些特定的天气条件下接近太阳常数。不同天气条件下,辐射收支特征存在较大差异;总辐射受云和沙尘的影响最明显,变幅最大,夏季沙尘暴天气时比晴天减少了80%以上;反射辐射的日变化趋势在各个季节内、各种天气条件下与总辐射非常一致;大气长波辐射所受影响较小,且云和沙尘会使其略微增加;地面长波辐射的变化幅度最小,均在10%以下;净辐射在阴天时略微降低,沙尘天气时明显降低,为负值。观测期间的平均辐射特征与晴天比较接近,平均的总辐射、净辐射与晴天的比值白天基本在0.7左右,说明云和沙尘对塔中的辐射能量有较大的强迫作用。     

基于DEM的山地总辐射模型及实现

总辐射状况是决定山地气候的主导性因子。山区地形条件复杂,总辐射分布差异显著,为了便于研究山区总辐射的地域分布规律,该文建立了一种基于DEM模拟山区总辐射的方法,通过提取数字坡度模型、数字高度模型以及地形遮蔽度模型等信息,并采用多层面复合分析的方法,建立了山区直接辐射、散射辐射以及总辐射的数字模型。实验证明,太阳总辐射及其分量在山区中有很强的地域分布规律。该方法采用的DEM精度高,能够精细地反映太阳辐射的地区分布差异,为山地气候资源调查与利用、生态环境建设乃至精细农业的实施提供重要依据。