Permittivity measurements using adjustable microscale electrode gaps between millimeter-sized spherical electrodes

This paper presents a technique for measuring the electrical permittivity of liquids and gases using millimeter-sized spherical electrodes with adjustable microscale separation. This technique eliminates the need for wet calibration by using the precise adjustment of electrode separation to remove the inherent errors of parasitic capacitance and electrode polarization. The spherical electrode geometry also eliminates the need for precise parallel adjustment of electrode separation, and enables small-volume, small-electrode-gap measurements where the applied electric field is constrained in a region of well-defined geometry. By further leveraging the fact that spherical electrodes can be obtained with extremely high diametrical accuracy, absolute permittivity measurement accuracies within 1% of the established values has been demonstrated. Finally, the apparatus also enables the creation of nanometer electrode gaps between macroscopic electrodes with precisely controlled separation, which can be used to study the electrical properties of liquids in highly confined states. The electrode gaps created in this manner can be adjusted from 20 nm to 50 microm, in increments of 0.25 nm.     

Note: electrode polarization of Galinstan electrodes for liquid impedance spectroscopy

Electrode polarization is a significant obstacle in the impedance measurements of ionic liquids. An atomically smooth electrode surface could potentially reduce unwanted impedance contributions from electrode polarization. Liquid metal electrodes were formed by adhering Galinstan to acrylic plates in a parallel-plate capacitor arrangement. Electrode polarization was compared to a similar cell with stainless steel electrodes. The impedance of salt and protein solutions (β-lactoglobulin) was measured from 40 Hz to 110 MHz. Because of oxide layer formation, the performance of the Galinstan electrode is significantly different than the theoretical ideal.     

An assessment of comparative methods for approaching electrode polarization in dielectric permittivity measurements

We examine the validity of three common methods for analysis and correction of the electrode polarization (EP) effect in dielectric spectroscopy measurements of conductive liquid samples. The methods considered are (i) algorithmic treatment by modeling the EP behavior at constant phase angle, (ii) varying the size of the electrode gap, and (iii) polypyrrole (PPyPss) layered electrodes. The latter is a relatively recent innovation suggested to be an efficient solution. We demonstrate that PPyPss coated electrodes do not diminish the effect of EP, and even add relaxation processes of its own. Our conclusion is that these polymer coated electrodes are not suitable for the correction of electrode polarization.     

Coping with electrode polarization for development of DC-Driven electrical impedance tomography

An electrical impedance tomography (EIT) system design is proposed for imaging of phase distribution in gas-water two-phase flow from boundary measurement of electrical potentials in response to direct current (DC) injection. DC injection simplifies substantially the system design, but introduces problems due to polarization of injection electrodes. Electrode polarization means charge accumulation on the electrode-water interface causing a drift in the interfacial potential difference. The polarization problems are coped with by using dedicated electrodes for injection and potential measurement, and using a current source unaffected by the polarization of current-carrying electrodes (CCEs). Furthermore, the polarization of CCEs is controlled, to lessen the possible influence on the sensing electrodes (SEs), by using a short (milliseconds in width) pulse for injection with a charge balanced injection strategy. The impact of electrode polarization and the effectiveness of countermeasures introduced in the present design are discussed through comparisons of measured boundary potentials and of images reconstructed for a simple object simulating large bubbles in water.     

Note: Two-dimensional resistivity mapping method for characterization of thin films and nanomaterials

A two-dimensional resistivity mapping method is presented as an analysis tool for thin films. The spatial distribution of resistivity in the interior of the film is reconstructed with the data measured on its periphery. A square window with four electrodes on each side is fabricated as the test vehicle. While the current is applied to one electrode, the potentials on the other electrodes are monitored and an iterative method generates the resistivity map. The technique is demonstrated by measurements on a homogeneous organic PEDOT:PSS film and an inhomogeneous ZnO nanoparticle coating.     

A dynamic measurement system for evaluating dry bio-potential surface electrodes

In this paper, a dynamic measurement system (DMS) is presented for assessing performance of wearable and dry bio-potential surface electrodes (DBSEs) in air, especially motion artifacts. A pair of perforated membranes is assembled on the two ends of the barrel which contains electrolyte to simulate surface of the skin. The pressure of electrode/membrane can be controlled and measured, one of electrodes can move on membrane by the motion controller. Experimental results show maximum coefficient of variation (CV) of electrical impedance spectra (EIS) and dynamic open circuit potential variation (DOCP, so-called motion artifacts) of gold electrode pair are, respectively, 4.3% and 7.2% in continuous measurements, 12.6% and 22% in discontinuous measurements, the pressure and the length of motion track between electrode and membrane are strongly linear correlation with DOCP variations. EIS and DOCP of five types of electrodes were measured on DMS and their parameters of equivalent circuit (EC) of EIS and DOCP variation show larger is equivalent capacitance in electrode/electrolyte interface, less is DOCP variation. DOCP variations of two batches of electrode performed respectively on DMS and on skin have approximate 0.64 of Pearson correlation coefficient. In general, the DMS provides a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of DOCP variation and evaluates the static or dynamic performance of electrodes. However, parameters of EC model by fitting EIS can predict the motion artifact and help the design of electrode and its integrated wearable garments.     

Capacitance sensor for hold-up measurement in high-viscous-oil/conductive-water core-annular flows

Capacitance sensors are widely used in multiphase flows, for example, to estimate the hold-up in a given section of the pipe, taking advantage of the different permittivity values of the two liquids. The estimation is obtained by capacitance measurements between two electrodes, flush mounted on the external surface of the experimental pipe. Usually, capacitance sensors are used to investigate flows with non-conductive fluids, but they have the possibility to work also when, for example, conductive water is used. However, the capacitance technique applied to conductive fluids develops some issues. In this paper, we present a concave electrode sensor system developed for oil/conductive-water flows. A key contribution is to propose a modelization to the problem of capacitive sensing in presence of conductive fluids, based on a new approach to the parasitic couplings outside the measurement section. Thanks to this modelization, we propose a new design method for the working frequency and the electrode measurement head.     

Novel impedance cell for low conductive liquids: determination of bulk and interface contributions

A plane capacitor cell with variable gap has been designed in order to detect the complex permittivity of low conductive liquids (up to 500 microS/cm) and the impedance of the sample-electrode interface. The novelty of the cell consists of the simultaneous presence of the field uniformity ensured by a guard ring, an adjustable gap between 300 microm and 6.75 mm (the electrode axial motion avoiding any rotation), and the immersion of the capacitor in the sample reservoir. The size of the capacitor electrodes and the gap values have been tested via the capacitance detection of the in-air cell at 1 kHz. The sample measurements have been performed by scanning the frequency range between 15 Hz and 2 MHz at four different capacitor gap values. In the paper a method to directly extract the bulk complex permittivity and the interface impedance versus frequency is presented. It is based on the assumption that the interface contribution is independent of the electrode gap, as confirmed (within the measurement accuracy) from measurements on all samples investigated. As samples of interest, we have chosen two certified electrolytic conductivity standards, KCl aqueous solutions having conductivity traceable to SI units; and two polymer latex aqueous dispersions of microspheres. Regarding KCl solutions, the conductivity measurements are compatible with the reference values within the specified uncertainty; the measured permittivities are consistent with the literature. For all samples, we have recovered the expected result that the interface impedance mainly affects the low frequency range (f<10 kHz).     

Bending actuation in a single-layer carbon-nanofiber/polypyrrole composite film and its fabrication

Thin CNF/PPy composite single-layer films were produced by the electrophoretic deposition and polymerization process which was developed for this study. It was demonstrated that the films could generate a bending motion subjected to an actuating electric voltage even though they consisted of only single-layer. Carbon nanofiber and polypyrrole composite films were obtained from only one side of a working electrode. Several different CNF/PPy films were synthesized, as varying the CNF weight ratios from 3%, 5%, and 7% to 10%. Conductivity of pure PPy and CNF/PPy composite films were measured. Conductivity of the films is improved linearly from 77.9S/cm (pure PPy film) to 124.3 S/cm (10% CNF/PPy) as the CNF weight ratio increases. Adding CNF was effective for improving the conductivity of PPy. As results of electromechanical actuation tests with the films, it was noticed that the strain of the films was reduced a little as the CNF weight ratio increased. Bending motions were observed for both PPy and CNF/PPy films subjected to a voltage. The tip bending deflections was in the range of 0.5 mm to 2 mm. CNF/PPy films showed a great potential to be a good candidate for small light actuators.     

不同电极上Pt-Ru/C催化剂对甲醇催化氧化的比较研究

利用玻碳电极和粉末微电极测试甲醇在Pt-Ru/C催化剂上的循环伏安曲线。比较玻碳电极和粉末微电极上的循环伏安行为,并测定甲醇在Pt-Ru/C催化剂上电催化氧化的动力学参数。结果表明:用玻碳电极和粉末微电极测试的甲醇在Pt-Ru/C催化剂上循环伏安曲线特性相同,测试计算的甲醇反应动力学参数相同,扩散系数几乎相同,两种电极都能较准确的测试催化剂的电催化活性。粉末微电极上浓差极化较小,当进行低速循环伏安扫描时,可以忽略浓差极化,电极过程只存在电化学极化。在玻碳电极上,使用Nafion膜不影响甲醇的扩散,催化剂的用量可以准确控制,能够精确计算催化剂的利用率。玻碳电极和粉末微电极各有特点,测试催化剂的电催化活性时可以根据实验要求选用。     

Capacitance sensor for void fraction measurement in water/steam flows

A capacitance sensor operating at RF range for void fraction measurements was developed. Two electrodes of the capacitor are mounted on the outer side of pipe walls. The variations in the percentage of phases in two-phase flow cause changes of the equivalent permittivity of the dielectric between the electrodes. The capacitor is connected in a resonant circuit of an oscillator tuned to high frequency of 80 MHz. The changes of frequency generated by the oscillator are the measure of the void fraction in the two-phase flow. An eight-channel system with capacitance sensors of this type was used for determination of the phase conversion along a steam injector.     

Correction of Errors in Polarization Based Dynamic Phase Shifting Interferometers

Polarization based interferometers for single snap-shot measurements allow single frame, quantitative phase acquisition for vibration insensitive measurements of optical surfaces. Application of these polarization based phase sensors requires the test and reference beams of the interferometer to be orthogonally polarized. As with all polarization based interferometers, these systems can suffer from phase dependent errors resulting from systematic polarization aberrations. This type of measurement error presents a particular challenge because it varies in magnitude both spatially and temporally between each measurement. In this article, a general discussion of phase calculation error is presented. We then present an algorithm that is capable of mitigating phase-dependent measurement errors on-the-fly. The algorithm implementation is non-iterative providing sensor frame rate limited phase calculations. Finally, results are presented for both a high numerical aperture system, where the residual error is reduced to the shot noise limit, and a system with significant birefringence in the test arm.     

Development of standard test methods for evaluating defibrillation recovery characteristics of disposable ECG electrodes

A clinically relevant test for the measurement of defibrillation overload recovery of prefilled disposable ECG electrodes was developed and is proposed for use in an ECG electrode standard under development by AAMI. Defibrillation overload voltages and currents, as well as electrode polarization recovery voltages, were first measured in animal tests on 12 types of electrodes to allow correlation with various bench tests using a capacitor discharge at 10, 200, or 1000 V. Current overloads absorbed by the electrodes under worst conditions in animal tests were in the range of 2 percent of the defibrillation current flowing through the chest. These overloads were absorbed by most Ag-AgCl electrodes without excessive polarization. However, stainless steel, brass, and tin electrodes tended to polarize to levels that would saturate many ECG monitors. A standard bench test using a 200-V 10-muF capacitor was recommended for inclusion in the AAMI standard to determine whether electrodes are acceptable for use during defibrillation.     

The performance characteristics of a novel multi-electrode electromagnetic flowmeter

The design of a novel multi-electrode electromagnetic flowmeter, which provides nine conventional electromagnetic flowmeters housed in a single body, has been used in adverse flow conditions immediately downstream from a header tank. The results show that careful initial calibration, in accord with the pipeline conditions recommended in international standards, enables errors of under 1% to be achieved. The results show that the two electrode planes closest to the header provide results with the greatest errors. The performance with the electrodes mounted in the vertical plane is generally better than that achieved with the electrodes mounted in the horizontal plane. Pressure measurements together with laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) techniques have been used to provide details of the magnitude of the disturbance caused to the flow field by the header and outflow combination.     

Experimental study of fine center electrode spark plug in bi-fuel engines

In the present work, the erosion of platinum fine center electrode spark plugs and conventional nickel plugs are investigated in a gasoline and natural gas bi-fuel engine. The effect of electrode erosion is evaluated by comparing the required ignition voltage and cold start ability of the different plug designs. After durability tests, platinum fine center electrode plug had insignificant electrode erosion and negligible gap growth; whereas the nickel plug had notable erosion and gap growth. There was no detectable side sparking for fine center electrode plugs. In terms of performance, the required ignition voltage of fine center electrode plug was lower than conventional spark plug. Also, results of a cold start test demonstrated that the starting time of the engine with fine electrode plugs was lower than conventional spark plugs. The surface of electrodes was studied by the scanning electron microscope and the energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy techniques. Cracking and peeling was observed on the surface of the nickel conventional electrodes, but not on the surface of the platinum fine electrodes. These tests show that platinum fine center electrodes could be suitable for gasoline/natural gas bi-fuel engines to meet long lifetime demand.     

AN OPTIMAL CALIBRATION DESIGN FOR pH METERS

Routine pH measurements are carried out with pH meter–glass electrode assemblies. The use of these electrodes is subject to various effects, described in this article, producing uncertainties of unknown magnitude. Therefore, the measurement of pH requires a suitable calibration by certified standard buffer solutions traceable to primary pH standards. This article addresses the optimal experimental procedure for the calibration problem to common pH meters, under D- and c-optimality criteria. The relevant calibration data analysis and the results are also presented in detail.     

非闭合电极电容层析成像传感器在冻土测试中的应用

为了实现电容层析成像技术对冻土冻结冰峰面的在线、非侵入测试,研制出了满足冻土测试要求的非闭合电极电容层析成像传感器,并对该种传感器的电容分布特性进行了实测;确定出了适合冻土测试的的高、低介电常数的标定物质;搭建了冻土一维冻结实验系统.对含水量8%的湿土样冻结过程的冰峰面迁移进行了电容层析成像测试,并利用IMNSNOF图像重建算法重建出了冻结过程各时刻的冻结截面物质分布图像,由图像可确定出冻土中已冻土、未冻区以及冰峰面的位置.电容层析成像测试结果与温度测试结果相吻合.     

EDM electrode manufacturing using RP combining electroless plating with electroforming

This study investigates an effective method for manufacturing electrical discharge machining (EDM) electrodes using the rapid prototyping (RP) system based on electroless plating (nickel plating) and electroforming (copper). This method was shown to finish the development of die-sinking electrical discharge machining (EDM) electrodes, shorten the electrode manufacturing process, decrease the manufacturing duration as well as the cost of electrodes. The electrode prototype was drawn with Pro/E 3D CAD, and the CAD model was then transformed into the stereo lithography (STL) file format. A Zcorp 402 3DP rapid prototyping machine was adopted to make a gypsum powder electrode prototype with a complex appearance. The gypsum material is sealed by resin permeation, enhancing its water-resistance and strength. Electroless plating was then performed to introduce electric conductivity onto the gypsum electrode surface, followed by copper electroforming of the thickness about 1 mm to obtain the EDM electrode. Furthermore, die-sinking electric discharge machining was performed. Test results indicate that no crack was found on the electrode and that the electrical discharge machining effects are promising.     

Dual modality ECT–MIT multi-phase flow imaging

Three-phase flow imaging is a very challenging problem in industrial process tomography. A particular interest here is three phase flow including both conductive and non-conductive phases. Currently there is no robust solution to this problem. Electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) has been applied to visualize the permittivity distribution by measuring inter-capacitance between electrodes around sensing area. Magnetic inductance tomography (MIT) is a technique to image the conductivity distribution through the inductance measurements over the coils around the sensing area. In this paper, the three-phase flow is classified into two scenarios: air background and water background. A dual-modality method of ECT and MIT is proposed to image both the conductive and dielectric components under test. As a result of this experiment, the dual-modality method is able to solve air-background three-phase flow imaging, but a problem has been raised in the water-background scenario. The static experiment results are promising for such contactless three phase flow imaging.     

A Converging Wall-Jet Instrument for Ion Selective Electrode Dynamic Response Studies

Abstract

Ion selective electrodes are used to conduct real-time measurements of gaseous thermal degradation products from halon replacement experiments. Response characteristics of these ion selective electrodes are needed to address potential interferences and surface poisoning experienced under field conditions. The design and the fabrication of an in situ, converging wall-jet instrument for the measurement of the dynamic responses of ion selective electrodes are described. Various time delays associated with the generation and detection of ion activity steps have been quantitatively determined.

Dynamic response measurements for iodide steps on a Corning iodide/cyanide ion selective electrode are comparable to those obtained on the best of the earlier instrument designs, the in situ, switched wall-jet instrument. The advantages of the converging wall-jet instrument over the switched wall-jet instrument are identified.