Antifungal,antiaflatoxin and antioxidant potential of chemically characterized Boswellia carterii Birdw essential oil and its in vivo practical applicability in preservation of Piper nigrum L. fruits

The study explores the chemical profile, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Boswellia carterii essential oil (EO). The EO significantly inhibited growth and aflatoxin production by the food borne toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus at 1.75 μl/ml and 1.25 μl/ml respectively. It exhibited broad fungitoxic spectrum against 12 food borne moulds and also showed strong antioxidant activity, IC₅₀ value and % inhibition of linoleic acid peroxidation being 0.64 μl/ml and 51.68% respectively. The antifungal action of EO was observed in terms of reduction in ergosterol content of plasma membrane of A. flavus. As fumigant in food system in storage containers, the EO provided 65.38% protection against fungal deterioration of Piper nigrum. GC–MS results revealed 31 components of EO. The chemically characterized B. carterii EO may thus be recommended as plant based preservative in view of its antifungal, antiaflatoxigenic, antioxidant activity and efficacy in food system.     

Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extracts of various onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum)

Antimicrobial activity of different concentrations (50, 100, 200, 300 and 500 ml/l) of essential oil extracts of three type of onions (green, yellow and red) and garlic against two bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmomella Enteritidis, and three fungi, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium cyclopium and Fusarium oxysporum, was investigated. The essential oil (EO) extracts of these Allium plants (garlic and onions) exhibited marked antibacterial activity, with garlic showing the highest inhibition and green onion the lowest. Comparatively, 50 and 100 ml/l concentrations of onions extracts were less inhibitory than 200, 300 and 500 ml/l concentrations. However, with garlic extract, high inhibitory activity was observed for all tested concentrations. S. aureus showed less sensitivity towards EO extracts inhibition, however S. Enteritidis was strongly inhibited by red onion and garlic extracts. The fungus F. oxysporum showed the lowest sensitivity towards EO extracts, whereas A. niger and P. cyclopium were significantly inhibited particularly at low concentrations. Conclusively, where seasoning is desired, essential oil extracts of onions and garlic can be used as natural antimicrobial additives for incorporating in various food products.     

Chemical composition,cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of the leaf essential oil of Photinia serrulata

The leaf essential oil of Photinia serrulata was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC and GC-MS. Seventy-one components were identified in the essential oil and the main components of the oil were 10-epi-γ-eudesmol (12.72%), pinene (6.85%), sabinene (5.93%), α-humulene (5.87%) and α-thujene (5.47%). The in vitro cytotoxicity of the oil on human cancer cell lines Hela, A-549 and Bel-7402 was examined. The oil was found to be very active against all the three human tumor cell lines tested with low IC₅₀ of 0.0427 μl/ml (Hela), 0.0219 μl/ml (A-549) and 0.0301 μl/ml (Bel-7402). The oil was also found to possess antioxidant activity as demonstrated by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method.     

Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Clinopodium vulgare L.

This study was designed to examine the chemical composition and in vitro antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Clinopodium vulgare. GC–MS analysis of the oil resulted in the identification of 40 compounds, representing 99.4% of the oil; thymol (38.9%), γ-terpinene (29.6%) and p-cymene (9.1%) were the main components. The samples were subjected to a screening for their possible antioxidant activity by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and β-carotene-linoleic acid assays. In the first case, IC₅₀ value of the C. vulgare essential oil was determined as 63.0 ± 2.71 μg/ml. IC₅₀ value of thymol and γ-terpinene, the major compounds of the oil, was determined as 161 ± 1.3 μg/ml and 122 ± 2.5 μg/ml, respectively, whereas p-cymene did not show antioxidant activity. In β-carotene-linoleic acid system, C. vulgare essential oil exhibited 52.3 ± 1.19% inhibition against linoleic acid oxidation. In both systems, antioxidant capacities of BHT, curcumine and ascorbic acid were also determined in parallel experiments.     

Chemical composition,antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of the essential oil of Artemisia indica Willd

Essential oil from the aerial parts of Artemisia indica was analysed by GC-FID and GC–MS. A total of 43 compounds representing 96.8% of the oil were identified and the major components were found to be artemisia ketone (42.1%), germacrene B (8.6%), borneol (6.1%) and cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (4.8%). Antimicrobial activity of the oil was evaluated against seven clinically significant bacterial and two fungal strains. The essential oil and its major constituents exhibited moderate to potent, broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal activities targeting both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In vitro cytotoxicity evaluation against four human cancer cell lines THP-1 (leukemia), A-549 (lung), HEP-2 (liver) and Caco-2 (colon) showed that the essential oil exhibited concentration dependant growth inhibition in the 10–100 μg/ml dilution range, with IC₅₀ values of 10 μg/ml (THP-1), 25 μg/ml (A-549), 15.5 μg/ml (HEP-2) and 19.5 μg/ml (Caco-2). It was interesting to note that the essential oil also exhibited potent antioxidant activity.     

Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the essential oils and methanol extract from Mentha longifolia L. ssp. longifolia

This study was designed to evaluate antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and methanol extract from Mentha longifolia ssp. longifolia. The essential oil showed strong antimicrobial activity against all 30 microorganisms tested whereas the methanol extract almost remained inactive. In contrast, the extract showed much better activity than the essential oil in antioxidant activity assays employed, e.g. in the inhibition of free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and β-carotene/linoleic acid systems. In the former, the extract was able to reduce the stable free radical DPPH with an IC₅₀ of 57.4 μg/ml while that of the oils was 10 700 μg/ml. When compared to BHT, a synthetic antioxidant, both showed weaker antioxidative potential. Similarly, in β-carotene/linoleic acid assay, these samples were not effectively able to inhibit the linoleic acid oxidation; exhibiting only 24% and 36% inhibitions at 2 mg/ml, respectively; both were far below than that of BHT. Total phenolic constituent of the extract was 4.5 g/100 g as gallic acid equivalent. GC–MS analysis of the oil resulted in the identification of 45 constituents, cis-piperitone epoxide, pulegone and piperitenone oxide being the main components.     

Bioactivities of açaí (Euterpe precatoria Mart.) fruit pulp,superior antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties to Euterpe oleracea Mart.

There are two predominant palm tree species producing edible fruit known as “açaí” found widely dispersed through the Amazon: Euterpe oleracea Mart. and Euterpe precatoria Mart. They differ from each other in terms of how the plants grow and their phytochemical composition. E. oleracea (EO) has received considerable attention as a “super fruit” because of its high antioxidant capacity, while studies on E. precatoria (EP) remain rare. In this study, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of EP fruit pulps were evaluated by different assays including a series of oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) based assays, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, the cell-based antioxidant protection in erythrocyte (CAP-e) assay, as well as the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) assay. Total phenolics were also measured as an indication of the total phenol content. For comparative purposes, the EO fruit pulp was included. The antioxidant capacity of the EP fruit pulp was determined to be superior to the EO fruit pulp in every chemical based assay. In the cell-based CAP-e assay, the EP fruit pulp showed a dose-dependent inhibition against oxidative damage with an IC₅₀ of 0.167 g/l. In the SEAP reporter assay, the EP fruit pulp polyphenol-rich extracts inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-κB activation by 23% (p < 0.05) at 20 μg/ml, whereas the extract of the EO fruit pulp did not show a significant inhibitory effect at comparable doses. In addition, carotenoids were quantified for the first time in EP, since EP has high scavenging capacity against singlet oxygen.     

Composition,antimicrobial, antiradical and spasmolytic activity of Ferula heuffelii Griseb. ex Heuffel (Apiaceae) essential oil

The essential oil from underground parts of Ferula heuffelii from N.E. Serbia, was analysed using GC and GC–MS. The main compounds of the essential oil were elemicin (35.4%) and myristicin (20.6%). The essential oil exhibited the best antimicrobial activity against two strains of Candida albicans (MIC = 7.0 and 13.7 μg/ml), as well as against Micrococcus luteus (MIC = 13.7 μg/ml), Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC = 17.6 μg/ml), Bacillus subtilis (MIC = 21.1 μg/ml) and Micrococcus flavus (MIC = 28.2 μg/ml). In the DPPH radical scavenging assay, essential oil showed substantial activity with SC₅₀ = 22.43 μl/ml. The essential oil was also tested for antispasmodic activity. It inhibited spontaneous contraction of isolated rat ileum dose-dependently, and at the concentration of 86.64 μg/ml exhibited 50% of the maximum effect of atropine. After incubation with 75.00 μg/ml of essential oil, acetylcholine did not induce contractions of ileum, and at 250.00 μg/ml, the essential oil almost completely abolished the spasmodic effect of potassium chloride (80 mM).     

Study on chemical composition and biological activities of essential oil and extract from Salvia pisidica

In this study, total contents of phenolic, flavanol and flavonol, antioxidant activities and antimicrobial activities of the Turkish endemic Salvia pisidica Boiss. & Heldr. ex Bentham (Lamiaceae) extract and essential oil were assessed in vitro. Total phenolic, flavanol and flavonol contents in the extract were 54.57 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g, 16.70 mg catechine equivalents (CE)/g and 18.19 mg rutin equivalents (RE)/g, respectively. Antioxidant activities (IC₅₀ value) of the extract and essential oil were determined as 4.88 and 6.41 mg/mL by DPPH assay, respectively. 31 compounds were determined in the essential oil using GC-MS and the major compounds (%) were camphor (23.76), sabinol (19.2), α-thujone (14.2) and eucalyptol (1.8-cineole) (5.8).The antimicrobial activity of the methanolic extract and the essential oil against 13 bacterial and two yeast strains was determined. The extract (concentration 5 g/100 ml or 10 g/100 ml) was effective against most of the strains tested, yet not against Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas hydrophila and the two yeast strains tested. The essential oil (2 g/100 ml) showed an antimicrobial effect against all the gram (+) bacteria tested, against Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but was not effective against all gram (−) bacteria and Candida albicans. These results show that S.piscidica essential oil and extract could be considered as a natural alternative to traditional food preservatives and be used to enhance food safety and shelf life.     

Essential oil composition,antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of Mosla chinensis Maxim

The essential oil of Mosla chinensis Maxim was analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and its main components are carvacrol (57.08%), p-cymene (13.61%), thymol acetate (12.68%), thymol (6.67%), and γ-terpinene (2.46%). The essential oil exhibited great potential antimicrobial activity against all eight bacterial and nine fungal strains. Antioxidant activity was also tested, the essential oil showing significantly higher antioxidant activity than that of the methanol extract. In addition, the amounts of total phenol components in the plant methanol extract (47.3 ± 0.4 μg/mg) and the oil (80.7 ± 0.5 μg/mg) were determined. The results presented here indicate that the essential oil of M. chinensis has antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, and is therefore a potential source of antimicrobial and antioxidant agents for the food and pharmaceutical industries.     

Comparative chemical composition,antioxidant and hypoglycaemic activities of Juniperus oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus L. berry and wood oils from Lebanon

Juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) is used in European cuisine for its distinguishing flavour. J. oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus berry and wood essential oils were tentatively identified by GC and GC/MS. Fifty compounds were identified in the berry oil and 23 compounds were identified in the wood oil. The J. oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus berry oil was characterised by high contents of α-pinene (27.4%) and β-myrcene (18.9%). Other important compounds were α-phellandrene (7.1%), limonene (6.7%), epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene (2.3%) and δ-cadinene (2.2%) while, in the wood oil, δ-cadinene (14.5%) is a major main component, together with cis-thujopsene (9.2%) and α-muurolene (4.9%). In vitro evaluation of antioxidant activity by the DPPH method showed a significant activity for both oils with IC₅₀ values of 1.45 μl/ml for wood and 7.42 μl/ml for berries. Hypoglycaemic activity was investigated through the inhibition of α-amylase. The results revealed that oil obtained by hydrodistillation from J. oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus wood exhibits an interesting activity with IC₅₀ of 3.49 μl/ml.     

Supercritical CO2 cell breaking extraction of Lycium barbarum seed oil and determination of its chemical composition by HPLC/APCI/MS and antioxidant activity

The extraction parameters for oil extraction from Lycium barbarum seed including extraction pressure, temperature and time were optimized using an orthogonal test design. The optimum conditions for supercritical CO₂ extraction were as follows: extraction pressure, 30 MPa; extraction temperature, 45 °C; dynamic extraction time, 60 min; CO₂ flow, 25 kg/h. The oil yield under the conditions proposed was 19.28 g/100 g. The effect of cell wall breakage pretreatment was investigated by supercritical CO₂ rapid depressurization, and results indicated this pretreatment could result in a rapid and efficient extraction. A sensitive fluorescent reagent 2-(11H-benzo[a]carbazol-11-yl) ethyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (BCETS) was utilized as pre-column labeling regent to determine fatty acids (FA) from Lycium barbarum seed oils obtained by different extraction methods. The main FA were: C18:2, C18:1, C16, C20:6, C18:3, and C20. The oil from L. barbarum seed exhibited excellent antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl（DPPH）radical scavenging assay and β-carotene bleaching test, and its antioxidant activity compared well with the references ascorbic acid and α- tocopherol.     

Screening of the antioxidative and antimicrobial properties of the essential oils of Pimpinella anisetum and Pimpinella flabellifolia from Turkey

The aerial parts of two endemic Pimpinella [Pimpinella anisetum Boiss. & Ball. and Pimpinella flabellifolia (Boiss.) Benth. ex Drude] were hydro-distilled to produce oils in the yields of 2.07% (v/w) and 2.61% (v/w), respectively. The oils were analysed by GC and GC/MS. Twenty-one and nineteen components were identified, representing 99.5% and 99.7% of the oils, respectively. The main compounds of P. anisetum were (E)-anethole (82.8%) and methyl chavicol (14.5%), whereas limonene (47.0%), (E)-anethole (37.9%) and α-pinene (6.0%) were the major constituents of P. flabellifolia. The oils were screened for their possible antioxidant activities by two complementary test systems, namely DPPH free radical-scavenging and β-carotene/linoleic acid systems. In the first case, P. anisetum oil exerted greater antioxidant activity than that of P. flabellifolia oil with an IC₅₀ value of 5.62 ± 1.34 μg/ml. In the β-carotene/linoleic acid test system, the oil of P. anisetum was superior to P. flabellifolia with 70.5% ± 2.86 inhibition rate. Essential oils of the plants studied here were also screened for their antimicrobial activities against six bacteria and two fungi. The oils showed moderate antimicrobial activity against all microorganisms tested.     

Chemical composition, in vitro cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and major constituents of Cymbopogon jawarancusa (Kashmir)

The chemical composition of the hydrodistillate of aerial parts of Cymbopogon jawarancusa, a natural grass considered as major forage for animal nutrition, used in food because of the presence of sufficient concentration of minerals like calcium and potassium was analysed by capillary GC–FID, GC–MS and ¹³C NMR. Seventeen constituents representing 97.8% of the total oil with piperitone (58.6%) and elemol (18.6%) as major constituents were identified. In vitro cytotoxicity of the oil and its constituents on human cancer cell lines THP-1 (leukemia), A-549 (lung), HEP-2 (liver) and IGR-OV-1 (ovary) was evaluated by Sulphorhodamine-B assay. The oil was found to be more potent than its components against cancer cell lines tested with IC₅₀ of 6.5 μg/ml (THP-1), 6.3 μg/ml (A-549), 7.2 μg/ml (HEP-2) and 34.4 μg/ml (IGR-OV-1). Antioxidant activity of oil and its constituents was evaluated by DPPH assay. In conclusion, the results demonstrate potent cytotoxic and antioxidant effects of oil, and its components like piperitone, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene and β-elemene.     

Antioxidant,anticholinesterase and antimicrobial constituents from the essential oil and ethanol extract of Salvia potentillifolia

The essential oil of Salvia potentillifolia was analysed by GC and GC–MS. Totally, 123 components were detected in both hydrodistilled and steam-distilled oils, α- and β-pinenes being major compounds. The antioxidant activities were determined by using complementary tests, namely, DPPH radical-scavenging, β-carotene-linoleic acid and reducing power assays. The ethanol extract also showed better activity (IC₅₀ = 69.4 ± 0.99 μg/ml) than that of BHT in the DPPH system, and showed great lipid peroxidation inhibition in the β-carotene-linoleic acid system (IC₅₀ = 30.4 ± 0.50 μg/ml). The essential oil showed meaningful butyrylcholinesterase activity (65.7 ± 0.21%), and α-pinene showed high acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 86.2 ± 0.96 μM) while β-pinene was inactive. Antimicrobial activity was also investigated on several microorganisms, and the essential oil showed high activity against Bacillus subtilis and B. cereus. It also exhibited remarkable anticandidal activity against Candida albicans and C. tropicalis with MIC values of 18.5 and 15.5 μg/ml, respectively, while α- and β-pinenes showed moderate activity.     

A Weibull model to describe antimicrobial kinetics of oregano and lemongrass essential oils against Salmonella Enteritidis in ground beef during refrigerated storage

The antimicrobial effect of oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.) essential oils (EOs) against Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis in in vitro experiments, and inoculated in ground bovine meat during refrigerated storage (4 ± 2 °C) for 6 days was evaluated. The Weibull model was tested to fit survival/inactivation bacterial curves (estimating of p and δ parameters). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value for both EOs on S. Enteritidis was 3.90 μl/ml. The EO concentrations applied in the ground beef were 3.90, 7.80 and 15.60 μl/g, based on MIC levels and possible activity reduction by food constituents. Both evaluated EOs in all tested levels, showed antimicrobial effects, with microbial populations reducing (p ≤ 0.05) along time storage. Evaluating fit-quality parameters (RSS and RSE) Weibull models are able to describe the inactivation curves of EOs against S. Enteritidis. The application of EOs in processed meats can be used to control pathogens during refrigerated shelf-life.     

The influence of fruit ripening on the phytochemical content and biological activity of Capsicum chinense Jacq. cv Habanero

During the past decade, it has been reported that the consumption of certain foods and spices such as pepper may have a positive effect on health. The present study evaluates the influence of fruit ripening on total phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids and capsaicinoids content and antioxidant, hypoglycaemic and anticholinesterase activities of Capsicum chinense Jacq. cv Habanero. The chemical investigation showed a different composition between the two stages of ripening (immature and mature). Generally, the concentration of carotenoids and capsaicinoids increased as the peppers reached maturity, whereas the concentration of phenols declined. The immature fruits showed the highest radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ of 97.14 μg/ml). On the contrary, the antioxidant activity evaluated by the β-carotene bleaching test showed a significant activity for mature peppers (IC₅₀ value of 4.57 μg/ml after 30 min of incubation). Mature peppers inhibited α-amylase with an IC₅₀ of 130.67 μg/ml. The lipophilic fractions of both mature and immature peppers exhibited an interesting and selective inhibitory activity against α-amylase with IC₅₀ values of 29.58 and 9.88 μg/ml, respectively. Both total extracts of mature and immature peppers inhibited butyrylcholinesterase selectively. The obtained results underline the potential health benefits as a result of consuming C. chinense Habanero and suggest that it could be used as new valuable flavour with functional properties for food or nutriceutical products on the basis of the high content of phytochemicals and found biological properties.     

Antifungal activity and chemical composition of Citrus reticulata Blanco essential oil against phytopathogens from North East India

The essential oil (EO) isolated by hydro-distillation from the peel of fully matured ripen fruits of Citrus reticulata Blanco were analyzed by GC and GC-MS. Thirty seven different components were identified constituting approximately ≥99% of the oil. The major components were limonene (46.7%), geranial (19.0%), neral (14.5%), geranyl acetate (3.9%), geraniol (3.5%), β-caryophyllene (2.6%), nerol (2.3%), neryl acetate (1.1%) etc. The antifungal activity of the oil was tested by poisoned food (PF) technique and the volatile activity (VA) assay against five plant pathogenic fungi viz Alternaria alternata (Aa), Rhizoctonia solani (Rs), Curvularia lunata (Cl), Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) and Helminthosporium oryzae (Ho). The oil showed better activity in VA assay. The Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for Aa, Rs and Cl was 0.2 ml/100 ml whereas >0.2 ml/100 ml for Fo and Ho in PF technique. Fungal sporulation was also completely inhibited at 2 ml/100 ml of the oil except for Cl and Ho, which was only 0.5% (±0.5) and 0.25% (±0.25) respectively as compared to control.     

Antioxidant activity of the essential oil and various extracts of Nepeta flavida Hub.-Mor. from Turkey

This study was designed to examine the chemical composition and in vitro antioxidant activity of the essential oil and various extracts (hexane, dichloromethane and methanol sub-fractions) of Nepeta flavida. GC and GC–MS analyses of the essential oil resulted in the identification of 68 compounds, representing 96.4% of the oil; 1,8-cineole (38.9%) and linalool (25.1%) were the main components, comprising 64.0% of the total oil. The samples were subjected to a screening for their possible antioxidant activities by using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and β-carotene-linoleic acid assays. In the first case, the IC₅₀ value of the N. flavida essential oil was determined to be 42.8 ± 2.19 μg/ml. Among the extracts, the strongest activity was exhibited by the polar sub-fraction of the methanol extract with an IC₅₀ value of 63.2 ± 1.75 μg/ml. In the β-carotene-linoleic acid system, N. flavida essential oil exhibited 86.3% ± 1.69 inhibition against linoleic acid oxidation. Among the extracts prepared with various solvents, a correlation was observed between the polarity and antioxidant activity. The extracts exhibited the same activity pattern in this system the most active one is the polar sub-fraction, 79.7% ± 0.89. On the other hand, 1,8-cineole, a major compound of the essential oil, exhibited marked antioxidant activity in both systems, whereas the other compound, linalool, did not show any activity. The amount of total phenolics was highest in the polar and non-polar sub-fractions. Particularly, a positive correlation was observed between the total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of the extracts. As estimated from the results, amounts of phenolic compounds were less in hexane and dichloromethane extracts than in the others. In conclusion, antioxidant potentials of polar and non-polar methanol sub-fractions could be attributed to their high phenolic contents. In both systems, antioxidant capacities of BHT, ascorbic acid, curcumin and α-tocopherol were also determined in parallel experiments.     

GC/MS analysis and in vitro antioxidant activity of essential oil and methanol extracts of Thymus caramanicus Jalas and its main constituent carvacrol

Chemical composition of the essential oil, antioxidant activity (DPPH and β-carotene/linoleic acid assays), and total phenolic content (Folin–Ciocalteu assay) of aerial parts of Thymus caramanicus were determined. The highest radical-scavenging activity (DPPH test) was shown by the polar subfraction of the methanol extract (IC₅₀ = 43.0 μg/ml) which was also higher than that of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, IC₅₀ = 19.7 μg/ml). However, it was the nonpolar subfraction of the methanol extract that showed the highest inhibition (84.4%), as assessed by the β-carotene/linoleic acid assay, which was only slightly lower than that shown by BHT (93.3%). The antioxidant activities of the essential oil main component (carvacrol) were also evaluated for comparison. Total phenolic content of the polar subfraction, as gallic acid equivalents, was 124.3 μg/mg. Essential oil extracted from the aerial parts by hydrodistillation was analysed by GC and GC/MS. Fifteen constituents, representing 99.3% of the oil, were identified, of which the major ones, carvacrol (85.9%), thymol (3.3%), p-cymene (3.2%), γ-terpinene (1.8%) and borneol (1.3%), accounted for 95.6% of the oil.