The relative power output and relative lean body mass of World and Olympic male and female champions with implications for gender equity

Abstract

A uniform measure of the gender-related differential performance of female and male Olympic and World champions is proposed: relative power output applied to the environment. Laws of physics are employed to derive equations for estimating relative power output. In previous controlled laboratory studies, equally trained male and female athletes were shown to have a relative power output not significantly different from relative lean body mass. As to the estimated power output for 32 Olympic and World championship events contested between 1976 and 2004, eight in running, four in speed skating, three in jumping, twelve in swimming and five in rowing: 100% of the 32 event mean percentage differences in power output and 96% of the 411 event percentage differences in power output are within one standard deviation of the appropriate lean body mass percentage difference, consistent with equality of training. For 1952 – 1972, significantly higher percentage differences in power output are estimated in running and swimming compared with 1976 – 2004, consistent with women being less well trained than men during that earlier period. It is noted that efforts in recent years to provide equality of opportunity for female athletes coincide with equalization of estimated relative power output in competition with the relative lean body mass.     

上海市10～18岁女青少年运动员生长发育与15 s无氧功特点及相关性分析

目的：探讨女青少年运动员生长发育与15S无氧功特点及其相关关系．对象和方法：以650名上海市10-18岁女运动员为对象,分别测试身高、体重、体脂率、肌肉量、瘦体重和立定跳远．并采集15S无氧功率自行车的最大功率、平均功率、最大转速、最大转速出现时间等指标,分析其特点及相关性、结果：上海市女青少年运动员身高及体重在10-13岁、最大和平均功率在㈤～15岁增长最快,15岁后趋于稳定,瘦体重、体重和肌肉与功率的相关性依次降低、结论：对女青少年运动员速度力量的训练要在15岁之前,评价女青少年运动员磷酸原代谢能力时最好使用瘦体重相对功率。     

我国优秀女子水球运动员身体成分及身体机能特征研究

目的：研究我国优秀女子水球运动员身体成分与身体机能特点,为水球运动的发展提供研究和实践参考。方法：采用BODPOD空气置换法,对自我国5支省代表队的55名优秀女子水球运动员进行体成分与身体机能测试,并按照运动等级的不同进行统计分析。结果：55名运动员的体脂百分比（％）为24．02±4．86;健将级运动员比一级运动员的体重、握力与台阶指数都明显较大,差异具显著性（p〈0．05）,其它机能指标不具显著差异;我国优秀女子水球运动员的体脂百分比我国优秀女子游泳运动员高。结论：本研究提供了一些反映女子水球运动体质要求特点的测试数据;发现女子水球运动员有较高的体脂含量,应控制身体脂肪含量;健将级运动员比一级运动员体重更大,有更强的心肺功能与上肢力量。     

我国自由式滑雪空中技巧女子运动员体能差异的研究

以2004—2006年间,参加过冬奥会或世界杯等重大国际比赛的中国自由式滑雪空中技巧女子运动员8人为研究对象,通过对其2005年雪上训练前一周的体能测试结果进行研究,发现一般运动员两侧身体机能普遍存在差别,而高水平运动员两侧身体机能差别较小,其原因在于高水平运动员的体能训练注重了身体机能的均衡发展。     

对第20届冬奥会自由式滑雪雪上技巧运动员身体基本形态特征的研究

通过文献资料法、数理统计法和比较分析法对参加第20届冬奥会自由式滑雪Moguls运动员(35名男运动员和30名女运动员)的年龄、身高、体重和克托莱指数进行统计分析。结果表明:男运动员的平均年龄为24.06岁,平均身高为175.14 cm,平均体重为72.91kg,平均克托莱指数为416.13;女运动员的平均年龄为25岁,平均身高为161.36 cm,平均体重为53.07kg,平均克托莱指数为356.60。这些优秀运动员的身体基本形态指标可以为我国自由式滑雪雪上技巧运动员的科学选材、科学训练提供一定的参考。     

Energy system contribution to 400-metre and 800-metre track running

As a wide range of values has been reported for the relative energetics of 400-m and 800-m track running events, this study aimed to quantify the respective aerobic and anaerobic energy contributions to these events during track running. Sixteen trained 400-m (11 males, 5 females) and 11 trained 800-m (9 males, 2 females) athletes participated in this study. The participants performed (on separate days) a laboratory graded exercsie test and multiple race time-trials. The relative energy system contribution was calculated by multiple methods based upon measures of race VO2, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), blood lactate and estimated phosphocreatine degradation (lactate/PCr). The aerobic/anaerobic energy system contribution (AOD method) to the 400-m event was calculated as 41/59% (male) and 45/55% (female). For the 800-m event, an increased aerobic involvement was noted with a 60/40% (male) and 70/30% (female) respective contribution. Significant (P < 0.05) negative correlations were noted between race performance and anaerobic energy system involvement (lactate/PCr) for the male 800-m and female 400-m events (r = - 0.77 and - 0.87 respectively). These track running data compare well with previous estimates of the relative energy system contributions to the 400-m and 800-m events. Additionally, the relative importance and speed of interaction of the respective metabolic pathways has implications to training for these events.     

Energy system contribution to 400-metre and 800-metre track running

As a wide range of values has been reported for the relative energetics of 400-m and 800-m track running events, this study aimed to quantify the respective aerobic and anaerobic energy contributions to these events during track running. Sixteen trained 400-m (11 males, 5 females) and 11 trained 800-m (9 males, 2 females) athletes participated in this study. The participants performed (on separate days) a laboratory graded exercsie test and multiple race time-trials. The relative energy system contribution was calculated by multiple methods based upon measures of race [Vdot]O₂, accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD), blood lactate and estimated phosphocreatine degradation (lactate/PCr). The aerobic/anaerobic energy system contribution (AOD method) to the 400-m event was calculated as 41/59% (male) and 45/55% (female). For the 800-m event, an increased aerobic involvement was noted with a 60/40% (male) and 70/30% (female) respective contribution. Significant (P <?0.05) negative correlations were noted between race performance and anaerobic energy system involvement (lactate/PCr) for the male 800-m and female 400-m events (r = ? 0.77 and ??0.87 respectively). These track running data compare well with previous estimates of the relative energy system contributions to the 400-m and 800-m events. Additionally, the relative importance and speed of interaction of the respective metabolic pathways has implications to training for these events.     

国内外全能运动成绩灰色理论"优势分析"的比较研究

通过对2004年全国田径锦标赛暨奥运会选拔赛女子七项全能（前8名）的总分与2004年奥运会女子七项全能（前8名）的总分进行差异性检验,2004年全国田径锦标赛暨奥运会选拔赛男子十项全能（前8名）的总分与2004年奥运会男子十项全能（前8名）共32名优秀运动员的总分进行差异性检验,揭示我国运动员与国际高水平运动员的差异,并提出相应的建议.     

2016年里约奥运会我国田径运动员竞技实力分析

采用文献资料、数理统计等方法对中国运动员在第23-30届共8届奥运会以及2006年以来参加历届世锦赛以及亚运会的成绩进行统计分析。通过对中国田径竞技实力项目的分析,预测在2016年里约热内卢奥运会上中国运动员的竞技实力与成绩。分析表明:当前,中国田径运动项目中男、女中长距离竞走,女子投掷、马拉松跑等为优势项目;男子110m栏竞技实力下降,待新人崛起;女子标枪和男子跳高项目竞技实力逐步显现,为潜优势项目;中国运动员在所有的47个田径比赛项目中,还有男女100m、200m、400m、800m、3 000m障碍跑、4×400m接力跑;男子400m栏、1 500m、5 000m、10 000m、马拉松;女子100m栏,女子跳远,男子投掷类项目没有运动员进入过前8名。2015年北京世锦赛中国男子跳远、标枪、撑杆跳高、100m跑,女子100m栏,男子4×100m等项目实现了历史性突破。探讨田径项目状况可以促进人们对田径竞技运动整体发展状况的了解、清晰田径运动不同分项间存在的异同性,可以为田径运动的综合管理提供思路、为田径运动提供制胜策略及训练理念。     

Body composition characteristics of elite Australian rugby union athletes according to playing position and ethnicity

This study describes the body composition traits of modern-day elite rugby union athletes according to playing position and ethnicity. Thirty-seven international Australian rugby athletes of Caucasian and Polynesian descent undertook body composition assessment using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and surface anthropometry. Forwards were significantly taller, heavier and had a greater total fat mass and lean mass than backs. Backs displayed a higher percentage lean mass and lower sum of seven skinfolds and percentage fat mass. While no whole body composition differences were seen between ethnicities, significant regional differences were observed. In the periphery (arm and leg) regions, Polynesians had a greater proportion of fat mass (53.1% vs. 51.3%, P = 0.052, d = 0.5) and lean mass (49.7% vs. 48.6%, P = 0.040, d = 0.9), while in the trunk region a lower proportion of fat mass (37.2% vs. 39.5%, P = 0.019, d = 0.7) and lean mass (45.6% vs. 46.8%, P = 0.020, d = 1.1). Significant differences were also seen between Caucasian and Polynesian forwards in leg lean mass (31.4 kg vs. 35.9 kg, P = 0.014, d = 2.4) and periphery lean mass (43.8 kg vs. 49.6 kg, P = 0.022, d = 2.4). Elite Polynesian rugby athletes have different distribution patterns of fat mass and lean mass compared to Caucasians, which may influence their suitability for particular positions.     

Italian women's television coverage and audience during the 2004 Athens Olympic Games

This study aimed at determining the amount of Italian television coverage dedicated to men's and women's sport and the number of male and female viewers during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. AUDITEL-AGB Nielsen Media Research Italia provided the TV airtime data for the sport events broadcast, which were classified into three categories: men-only, women-only, and mixed-gender. The viewer sample was divided by age and gender and included three audience parameters: mean audience, share, and appreciation index. The last item is calculated from the program duration, audience permanence, and the share related to programs broadcast by other Italian channels. In particular, the appreciation index was used to investigate the relationship between (a) the viewer's and sport participants' gender and (b) the effect of Italian participation and expectations for sport achievement. The data showed that Italian male athletes outnumbered their female counterparts. Women's sport was allotted significantly less airtime than men's sport, but this imbalance was not proportional to the gender difference in the overall athletes' participation in the Games. Although the female audience represented 45% of the total, a significantly higher male mean audience and share were found. On the other hand, the appreciation of men's and women's sport events was balanced after equating for differences in media coverage. Moreover sport achievement might have a positive effect on the trend toward equality of gender coverage, indicating that a global multisport event such as the Olympic Games is central to communicating a national image and identity independently of the athletes' gender.     

我国女子跳马技术现状与对策

通过对39、40届世界体操锦标赛，雅典、北京奥运会女子跳马决赛运动员动作的类型、难度、完成质量与成绩关系的研究和对北京奥运会中、美女子跳马相关数据的对比分析，认为中国运动员选用的动作单一，整体难度和完成动作的质量上还与美国队存在差距。提出了转变训练思想、加强基础体能训练并力求创新等对策，如把“以强带弱”改为“以弱促强”；充分利用规则和器械特点找准技术突破口；加强速度和力量素质训练；发展适合我国运动员身体特点的动作，提高动作起评分等。     

Outstanding performances during elite-standard short and middle-distance finals and the hyperandrogenism regulation—A detailed analysis of Caster Semenya’s results

ABSTRACT

Recently, there has been much controversy over the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) regulations regarding eligibility to compete and natural testosterone levels in female athletes. Much interest lies in the analysis of Caster Semenya's extraordinary performance. The objective of this work were, a) Complete an analysis of Caster Semenya's results during the 800m finals and b) search for existing similar performances by other female athletes. We analysed the results of the finals of all IAAF World Championships and Olympic Games from 1984–2016, including the 800m results of the Diamond Leagues 2016–2018. Exponential curves were fit to the data to characterise and predict performance for each event. Caster Semenya's finishing times before her ineligibility to compete and after the suspension of the IAAF hyperandrogenism regulation were found to be 1.24% and 1.49%, respectively, faster than the characteristic performance of the elite-standard in the women’s 800m final. Other female athletes, with finishing times faster than the ones predicted by the characteristic curves were also discovered. The percentage difference in performance between Caster Semenya and the other participants did not reach 3% in the 800m event. No conclusions can be drawn regarding extraordinary results ever performed during the 100m, 200m or 400m finals.     

美国奥运会马拉松运动员训练特点研究

拥有2500多年历史的马拉松是一项参与门槛低的赛事,因而全球范围内参与人数众多,很少有人关注长距离跑精英运动员的训练特征,本文撰写者主要运用文献资料法、数理统计法研究2004年美国奥林匹克马拉松测试赛男子女子达标运动员的训练特征。总结93名运动员的测试结果,主要内容从运动员身体特征和成绩、运动员训练训练情况方面进行分析。     

Body composition and hydration status changes in male and female open-water swimmers during an ultra-endurance event

Body mass changes during ultra-endurance performances have been described for running, cycling and for swimming in a heated pool. The present field study of 20 male and 11 female open-water swimmers investigated the changes in body composition and hydration status during an ultra-endurance event. Body mass, both estimated fat mass and skeletal muscle mass, haematocrit, plasma sodium concentration ([Na+]) and urine specific gravity were determined. Energy intake, energy expenditure and fluid intake were estimated. Males experienced significant reductions in body mass (-0.5 %) and skeletal muscle mass (-1.1 %) (P < 0.05) during the race compared to females who showed no significant changes with regard to these variables (P > 0.05). Changes in percent body fat, fat mass, and fat-free mass were heterogeneous and did not reach statistical significance (P > 0.05) between gender groups. Fluid intake relative to plasma volume was higher in females than in males during the ultra-endurance event. Compared to males, females' average increase in haematocrit was 3.3 percentage points (pp) higher, urine specific gravity decrease 0.1 pp smaller, and plasma [Na+] 1.3 pp higher. The observed patterns of fluid intake, changes in plasma volume, urine specific gravity, and plasma [Na+] suggest that, particularly in females, a combination of fluid shift from blood vessels to interstitial tissue, facilitated by skeletal muscle damage, as well as exercise-associated hyponatremia had occurred. To summarise, changes in body composition and hydration status are different in male compared to female open-water ultra-endurance swimmers.     

Validity and Reliability of the 3-Day Physical Activity Recall in Singaporean Adolescents

This study aimed at determining the amount of Italian television coverage dedicated to men's and women's sport and the number of male and female viewers during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. AUDITEL-AGB Nielsen Media Research Italia provided the TV airtime data for the sport events broadcast, which were classified into three categories: men-only, women-only, and mixed-gender. The viewer sample was divided by age and gender and included three audience parameters: mean audience, share, and appreciation index. The last item is calculated from the program duration, audience permanence, and the share related to programs broadcast by other Italian channels. In particular, the appreciation index was used to investigate the relationship between (a) the viewer's and sport participants' gender and (b) the effect of Italian participation and expectations for sport achievement. The data showed that Italian male athletes outnumbered their female counterparts. Women's sport was allotted significantly less airtime than men's sport, but this imbalance was not proportional to the gender difference in the overall athletes' participation in the Games. Although the female audience represented 45% of the total, a significantly higher male mean audience and share were found. On the other hand, the appreciation of men's and women's sport events was balanced after equating for differences in media coverage. Moreover, sport achievement might have a positive effect on the trend toward equality of gender coverage, indicating that a global multisport event such as the Olympic Games is central to communicating a national image and identity independently of the athletes' gender.     

A Comparison of Autonomic Nervous System Activity between Physically Trained and Untrained Individuals

Abstract

The study is concerned with the comparison of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity between highly trained collegiate track and field athletes and untrained individuals. An ANS test battery consisting of six individual measures of autonomic activity was used: (a) sublingual temperature, (b) salivary output, (c) volar skin resistance, (d) palmar skin resistance, (e) diastolic blood pressure, and (f) heart period. One group of athletes, track runners, were found to have a mean autonomic balance score significantly higher (at the .02 level) than the norm group of college students. The autonomic scores of field event athletes, however, were not significantly different from the norm. An analysis of the type of ANS activity demonstrated by the runners showed a dominance by the parasympathetic as compared to a mixed pattern demonstrated by the normative sample. It was concluded that highly trained track runners demonstrated a significantly higher autonomic balance score than did normal college students, and that their resting autonomic pattern was predominantly parasympathetic. There was evidence to indicate that equality of performance in the running events in track, and possibly other athletic events, may be partially predictable from autonomic balance scores.     

男子400 m跑各分段速度最佳化时控区间标准研究

以两届世界田径锦标赛和第24届奥运会男子400m前8名运动员的成绩为研究样本，对世界一流运动员400m跑各分段的速度特征与成绩的关系进行分析，通过对不同技术类型运动员的速度分配差异程度的研究，初步制定评价400m跑效果的分段速度最佳化时控区间标准。     

中国女子竞技体操现状分析

女子竞技体操拥有一批优秀的教练员和运动员,取得过奥运会、世锦赛、世界杯的单项冠军,但是,发展处于不平衡的局面.高低杠、平衡木是我国传统的强项,而跳马、自由体操是我国女子体操的弱项.这种不平衡的状况影响我国女子竞技体操的全面发展,也制约了我国竞技体操的奥运争光计划的实施.     

2008年奥运会田径信息采集方式及内容统计分析

根据我国田径备战2008年奥运会工作的实际需要,通过课题立项,对男女竞走、男子110米栏、女子中长跑、女子马拉松和女子链球等重点项目提供了长达三年的信息服务,内容包括：田径强国技术训练资料翻译、多文种田径科研文献推介、对手动态情报和档案采集、强国实力分析、奥运成绩预测等。所采集的文献来源时间跨度为四年（2005-2008）,涉及英、俄、德、法、西等文种。本文对该项课题研究成果的内容进行了总结归纳,旨在对2008奥运周期信息服务的工作效果进行评价,为改进和完善田径备战2012年奥运会信息服务工作的内容和效果提供参考。