Implicit and explicit evaluations of foods: The natural and transformed dimension

In Western societies, choosing what to eat can be a demanding task due to the excessive availability of food. To make our feeding decisions more complex, our explicit and implicit evaluations of foods may differ as they are multi-attribute stimuli. Previous research has focused on investigating implicit and explicit evaluations towards high and low energy dense foods, the main finding being that participants’ hunger level and dietary habits (restrained eating) modulate such evaluations. In the present study, we investigated whether normal-weight healthy individuals assigned different values to natural and transformed foods depending on implicit (assessed with the Implicit Association Test) or explicit measures (assessed with explicit ratings), and whether participants’ hunger level or dietary habits modulated the responses at both levels. Our results showed that while for natural foods implicit and explicit measures (healthiness) seemed to converge, dietary habits or hunger level did not affect such evaluations. For transformed foods, a dissociation between implicit and explicit measures (healthiness) seemed to emerge, along with a strong modulation of dietary habits and hunger level on the evaluations of such foods. Thus, these findings reveal how the type of food can modulate evaluations at both the implicit and explicit level and highlight a critical role of long-term health consequences and eating patterns in food evaluations.     

Core food of the French food supply: second Total Diet Study

As first described in the 1980s, the core food intake model allows a precise assessment of dietary nutrient intake and dietary exposure to contaminants insofar as it reflects the eating habits of a target population and covers the most important foods in terms of consumption, selected nutrient and contaminant contribution. This model has been used to set up the sampling strategy of the second French Total Diet Study (TDS) with the aim of obtaining a realistic panorama of nutrient intakes and contaminant exposure for the whole population, useful for quantitative risk assessment. Data on consumption trends and eating habits from the second French individual food consumption survey (INCA2) as well as data from a 2004 purchase panel of French households (SECODIP) were used to identify the core foods to be sampled. A total of 116 core foods on a national scale and 70 core foods on a regional scale were selected according to (1) the consumption data for adults and children, (2) their consumer rates, and (3) their high contribution to exposure to one or more contaminants of interest. Foods were collected in eight French regions (36 cities) and prepared ‘as consumed’ to be analysed for their nutritional composition and contamination levels. A total of 20 280 different food products were purchased to make up the 1352 composite samples of core foods to be analysed for additives, environmental contaminants, pesticide residues, trace elements and minerals, mycotoxins and acrylamide. The establishment of such a sampling plan is essential for effective, high-quality monitoring of dietary exposure from a public health point of view.     

Preschoolers' dietary behaviours: parents' perspectives.

PURPOSE: Preschoolers' dietary intake behaviours are described from the perspective of their parents. METHODS: A maximum variation sample of 71 parents of preschoolers participated in this qualitative study. Ten semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted. Two experienced moderators facilitated all focus groups, which were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Strategies to ensure trustworthiness of the data were employed throughout the study. Two team members independently performed inductive content analysis. NVivo software was used to code the emerging themes. RESULTS: Parents identified food and food issues as key health-related behaviours among preschoolers. Parents discussed challenges to healthy eating, including time limitations and societal pressures, as well as methods for facilitating healthy food choices, including bribery, education, and being creative with food. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary intake is on the minds of preschoolers' parents. Unfortunately, some methods that parents currently use to promote healthy food choices may be more detrimental than beneficial for children in the long term. Parents' keen interest in their preschoolers' eating habits may make them particularly receptive to learning about and facilitating healthy choices in more behaviourally appropriate ways. Widespread educational messages about the benefits and detriments of various strategies to facilitate healthy eating among preschoolers therefore seem warranted.     

Meal patterns and food selection of elderly people from six European towns

Knowledge of meal patterns and the use of foods is important for relating diet to health. This paper focuses on these patterns among 681 elderly people, aged 74-79 years, from 6 centres in the SENECA (Survey in Europe on Nutrition and the Elderly, a Concerted Action) study. Data were obtained using a standardised dietary history and the Eurocode system was applied for organising foods into food groups. The study revealed clear cross-cultural differences in meal and food patterns between the centres in Europe. A significant negative relation was observed between energy intake at midday and geographical latitude of the study town. For other main meals no such relationship emerged. As for food selection, this analysis adds to the evidence of a healthy food choice in some centers in the South, which might be mediated by the composition and size of the midday meal.     

Food preferences and intake in a population of Dutch individuals with self-reported smell loss: An online survey

Olfaction plays a major role in food intake regulation. Losing the sense of smell might therefore affect eating behavior. This study investigated food preferences and intake in individuals suffering from self-reported smell loss with an online survey. Members of the Dutch Anosmia Foundation (DAF) performed the Macronutrient and Taste Preference Ranking Task (n = 71) to measure preference for foods high in fat, carbohydrates or protein and low energy foods, and for sweet and savory tastes. To assess dietary intake, adherence to the Dutch Dietary Guidelines for consumption of vegetables, fruit, fiber, fish, saturated fat, trans fatty acids, salt and alcohol was measured (n = 105). Results of the DAF participants were compared to local cohort groups. Both the control and DAF participants showed the lowest preference for carbohydrate-rich foods and highest preference for low-energy foods. Participants suffering from congenital smell loss showed an aberrant pattern, with a higher preference for fat. The total adherence score to the Dutch Dietary Guidelines was similar for the control and DAF group, but adherence scores for fiber, trans fatty acids and alcohol were lower in DAF participants. Overall, no major significant differences in food preferences and intake were found for participants who lost their sense of smell during life. Participants suffering from congenital smell loss did show changes in food preferences, suggesting they are potentially more taste-oriented during eating. Together these results show the importance of tailored advice on dietary intake for this patient group.     

Probabilistic modelling to assess exposure to three artificial sweeteners of young Irish patients aged 1–3 years with PKU and CMPA

The choice of suitable normal foods is limited for individuals with particular medical conditions, e.g., inborn errors of metabolism (phenylketonuria – PKU) or severe cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA). Patients may have dietary restrictions and exclusive or partial replacement of specific food groups with specially formulated products to meet particular nutrition requirements. Artificial sweeteners are used to improve the appearance and palatability of such food products to avoid food refusal and ensure dietary adherence. Young children have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes for additives than adults due to higher food intakes kg^–1 body weight. The Budget Method and EFSA’s Food Additives Intake Model (FAIM) are not equipped to assess partial dietary replacement with special formulations as they are built on data from dietary surveys of consumers without special medical requirements impacting the diet. The aim of this study was to explore dietary exposure modelling as a means of estimating the intake of artificial sweeteners by young PKU and CMPA patients aged 1–3 years. An adapted validated probabilistic model (FACET) was used to assess patients’ exposure to artificial sweeteners. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in Ireland from the National Preschool and Nutrition Survey (NPNS, 2010–11). Specially formulated foods for special medical purposes were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. Inclusion was based on recommendations for adequate protein intake and dietary adherence data. Exposure assessment results indicated that young children with PKU and CMPA have higher relative average intakes of artificial sweeteners than healthy young children. The reliability and robustness of the model in the estimation of patient additive exposures was further investigated and provides the first exposure estimates for these special populations.     

Mitigating Nutrition and Health Deficiencies in Older Adults: A Role for Food Innovation?

The aim of this review is to describe the factors contributing to diminished food intake, resulting in nutritional deficiencies and associated health conditions in older adults and proposes food innovation strategies to mitigate these. Research has provided convincing evidence of a link between healthy eating patterns and healthy aging. There is a need to target new food product development (NPD) with functional health benefits specifically designed to address the particular food‐related needs of older consumers. When developing foods for older adults, consideration should be given to the increased requirements for specific macro‐ and micronutrients, especially protein, calcium, vitamin D, and vitamin B. Changes in chemosensory acuity, chewing difficulties, and reduced or poor swallowing ability should also be considered. To compensate for the diminished appetite and reduced intake, foods should be energy dense, nutritionally adequate, and, most importantly, palatable, when targeting this cohort. This paper describes the potential of new food product development to facilitate dietary modification and address health deficiencies in older adults.     

An ethnographic exploration of perceptions of changes in dietary variety in the Kolli Hills,India

The Malayalis Tribe, a Scheduled Tribe of the Kolli Hills in southern India, has experienced a decrease in the variety of foods consumed in the past 20 years. It is important to understand these changes in dietary patterns to inform future interventions to improve dietary diversity. This study aimed to investigate the perceived factors and experiences from participants belonging to different age groups and genders that have affected changes in dietary variety in the Kolli Hills over the past 20 years. An ethnographic approach was used for the study. Data collection methods included semi-structured focus group discussions, informal individual interviews, and participant observations. Inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze themes related to the research questions. Results suggest that dietary diversity has declined and a smaller number of foods are consumed from grain products, fruits, vegetables and meat products. The main reasons for the decrease in dietary variety include an increased reliance on market systems (linked with an increase in cassava cash cropping) to obtain food and a lack of financial resources to purchase a variety of foods for consumption. Intergenerational changes in taste preferences influenced the types of foods consumed in the household. Drudgery associated with preparing traditional millets for consumption made it a less favorable choice in comparison to subsidized rice purchased through Fair Price Shops. The findings from this study are important to understand the changes in dietary patterns from the perspective of community members and will help inform future interventions to improve dietary diversity in the Kolli Hills.     

从抗氧化保健食品看食品在功能产品中的应用

通过对中国已批准的抗氧化保健食品原料使用情况和产品配伍分析,发现食品及其提取物在抗氧化功能食品中应用较广,从而引出了对食品及其提取物在所有功能食品中使用现状的概括,最后对功能食品研发时选择食品和食品提取物应该注意的问题提出了建议。     

Olfactory priming for eating behavior – The influence of non-conscious exposure to food odors on specific appetite,food preferences and intake

Sensory food cues in our surroundings, such as odors, trigger decisions that may lead to (over)eating. These cues occur mainly outside of people’s awareness. Therefore, it is crucial to better understand the effect of (non-consciously exposure of) food odors on behavioral responses. Moreover, sensory-specific appetite suggests that food odor exposure may enhance appetite for products with similar properties in taste and calorie content, inferring that we can detect nutrient content of the food through our sense of smell. Our previous research showed that conscious exposure to macronutrient-related odors influenced specific appetite but not food preferences or intake. However, eating behavior responses may differ depending on the level of awareness of the odor cue. Therefore, in our current study, we aimed to determine the influence of non-conscious exposure to macronutrient-related odors on specific appetite, food preferences and food intake. 34 healthy, normal-weight and unrestrained Dutch females underwent four sessions where they were non-consciously exposed to odors representing food high in carbohydrates, protein and fat, and low-calorie foods. Eating behavior was assessed through a specific appetite questionnaire, a computer task on macronutrient and taste food preferences, and actual food intake by means of a salad bar which included toppings representing the different macronutrients. Results show that non-conscious exposure to macronutrient-signaling odors does not influence congruent appetite, food preferences nor food intake of a main meal. Follow-up research should focus on different odor exposure (intensity and exposure time) and outcomes measures to have a better understanding of olfactory priming on eating behavior.     

Meaning of food and consumer eating behaviors

Prior research suggests that food is embedded in a system of meanings. Yet, little is known about how the different meanings people attribute to food affect their food consumption behavior. Results of a nationally representative survey in Austria reveal how food meanings (sacred, moral, health, social, and aesthetic, assessed with the Meaning of Food in Life Questionnaire) relate to a wide range of food consumption patterns (health-conscious, discerning, indulgent, and functional). First, health-conscious eating behaviors (e.g., following a healthy diet, frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables, buying seasonal and regional foods, cooking, following medical recommendations about nutrition) were driven by the social and moral meanings of food. Second, discerning eating behaviors (e.g., buying organic products, shopping at small stores or local markets, avoiding meat products, prioritizing quality over quantity) were predicted by the moral meaning of food. Third, indulgent eating behaviors (e.g., consuming salty and sweet snacks and ready-made meals, eating on the go, overeating) were driven by the aesthetic meaning of food and a lowered importance of the health meaning of food. Finally, functional eating behaviors (e.g., consuming functional foods such as dietary supplements, enriched foods or “light” products, paying attention to food labels, buying groceries with a shopping list, buying groceries online) were driven by the sacred meaning of food and a lowered appreciation of the aesthetic meaning of food. Taken together, these findings suggest that food meaning can serve as a useful framework to understand different patterns of food consumption, generate novel insights and provide actionable recommendations.     

Does eating while watching television influence children's food-related behaviours?

To assess children's food-related behaviours and their relationships with eating while watching television (TV), data were collected from 534 ten-year-old French-Canadian children. A self-administered questionnaire was used. Almost 18% of girls and over 25% of boys reported eating in front of the TV every day. Although, overall, the boys' eating pattern was less healthy than the girls', all of the children's food choices deteriorated with increased frequency of eating in front of the TV. Compared with girls, boys gave more importance to coloured and attractive foods, and to selecting foods similar to those eaten by others. Over 50% of children reported always receiving negative weight-related comments from family members. For boys, significant correlations were found between the frequency of eating in front of the TV, the importance given to a food's appearance, and their requests to parents for advertised foods. Significance was at the p<0.05 level for all findings. These results suggest that gender should be considered in attempts to understand children's food motivations and behaviours. The findings also indicate the need to document children's eating environments, and to inform children and their families about eating behaviours that may be associated with a given environment.     

坚果类休闲食品在口腔加工中的感官体验及其评价概述

坚果类休闲食品是以各种坚果、瓜果籽等为原材料,经烘焙、干制、炒制而成,是一类营养丰富且具有独特风味和口感体验的零食,深受消费者的喜爱.本文对坚果类休闲食品的定义、特点、发展现状进行了较为系统的分析,重点阐述坚果类食品的感官与饮食体验及其影响因素和各种评价方法等,以期为坚果类休闲食品的感官体验研究提供新的思路,更好地推进...     

The Canadian total diet study design: 1992–1999

This paper describes the design of the fourth phase of the Canadian total diet study, conducted for the period 1992–1999. During this phase, complete sets of foods were purchased from eight cities (from one of them twice). For each of the sets, individual foods were prepared as for consumption into about 140 different food composites at Kemptville College, homogenised and bottled. Water from Kemptville, Ontario, was used for the preparation of the foods. The composites were stored frozen at??20°C and then analysed in the Food Research Division for chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans, pesticides, PCBs and trace elements. The analytical results were combined with average food consumption values for different age/sex groups, and dietary intakes were calculated. The design of the total diet study provided information to achieve the following goals: (a) background concentrations of the chemicals in the 140 different food composites, (b) average dietary intakes of the chemicals by the population and by different age/sex groups, (c) percent contribution of individual foods and food groups to the dietary intakes, (d) identification of individual contaminated foods and (e) identification of trends in human exposure with time.     

Policy interventions to promote healthy eating: a review of what works, what does not, and what is promising

Unhealthy diets can lead to various diseases, which in turn can translate into a bigger burden for the state in the form of health services and lost production. Obesity alone has enormous costs and claims thousands of lives every year. Although diet quality in the European Union has improved across countries, it still falls well short of conformity with the World Health Organization dietary guidelines. In this review, we classify types of policy interventions addressing healthy eating and identify through a literature review what specific policy interventions are better suited to improve diets. Policy interventions are classified into two broad categories: information measures and measures targeting the market environment. Using this classification, we summarize a number of previous systematic reviews, academic papers, and institutional reports and draw some conclusions about their effectiveness. Of the information measures, policy interventions aimed at reducing or banning unhealthy food advertisements generally have had a weak positive effect on improving diets, while public information campaigns have been successful in raising awareness of unhealthy eating but have failed to translate the message into action. Nutritional labeling allows for informed choice. However, informed choice is not necessarily healthier; knowing or being able to read and interpret nutritional labeling on food purchased does not necessarily result in consumption of healthier foods. Interventions targeting the market environment, such as fiscal measures and nutrient, food, and diet standards, are rarer and generally more effective, though more intrusive. Overall, we conclude that measures to support informed choice have a mixed and limited record of success. On the other hand, measures to target the market environment are more intrusive but may be more effective.     

Longitudinal modelling of the exposure of young UK patients with PKU to acesulfame K and sucralose

ABSTRACT

Artificial sweeteners are used in protein substitutes intended for the dietary management of inborn errors of metabolism (phenylketonuria, PKU) to improve the variety of medical foods available to patients and ensure dietary adherence to the prescribed course of dietary management. These patients can be exposed to artificial sweeteners from the combination of free and prescribed foods. Young children have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes (ADI) for additives than adults, due to higher food intakes per kg body weight. Young patients with PKU aged 1–3 years can be exposed to higher levels of artificial sweeteners from these dual sources than normal healthy children and are at a higher risk of exceeding the ADI. Standard intake assessment methods are not adequate to assess the additive exposure of young patients with PKU. The aim of this study was to estimate the combination effect on the intake of artificial sweeteners and the impact of the introduction of new provisions for an artificial sweetener (sucralose, E955) on exposure of PKU patients using a validated probabilistic model. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in the United Kingdom from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS, 1992–2012). Specially formulated protein substitutes as foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. Inclusion of these protein substitutes is based on recommendations to ensure adequate protein intake in these patients. Exposure assessment results indicated the availability of sucralose for use in FSMPs for PKU leads to changes in intakes in young patients. These data further support the viability of probabilistic modelling as a means to estimate food additive exposure in patients consuming medical nutrition products.     

A comprehensive review of furan in foods: From dietary exposures and in vivo metabolism to mitigation measures

Furan is a thermal food processing contaminant that is ubiquitous in various food products such as coffee, canned and jarred foods, and cereals. A comprehensive summary of research progress on furan is presented in this review, including discussion of (i) formation pathways, (ii) occurrence and dietary exposures, (iii) analytical techniques, (iv) toxicities, (v) metabolism and metabolites, (vi) risk assessment, (vii) potential biomarkers, and (viii) mitigation measures. Dietary exposure to furan varies among different countries and age groups. Furan acts through various toxicological pathways mediated by its primary metabolite, cis-2-butene-1,4-dial (BDA). BDA can readily react with glutathione, amino acids, biogenic amines, or nucleotides to form corresponding metabolites, some of which have been proposed as potential biomarkers of exposure to furan. Present risk assessment of furan mainly employed the margin of exposure approach. Given the widespread occurrence of furan in foods and its harmful health effects, mitigating furan levels in foods or exploring potential dietary supplements to protect against furan toxicity is necessary for the benefit of food safety and public health.     

Smelling our appetite? The influence of food odors on congruent appetite,food preferences and intake

We are surrounded by sensory food cues, such as odors, that may trigger (un)conscious decisions and even lead to (over)eating, it is therefore crucial to better understand the effect of food odors on behavioral responses. Food odor exposure has been shown to enhance appetite for food products with similar properties: sensory-specific appetite. This suggests that based on previous encounters with foods, we have learned to detect the nutritional content of foods, through our sense of smell. We investigated the influence of aware exposure of macronutrient-related odors on various measures of eating behavior, in a cross-over intervention study. Thirty two normal-weight healthy and unrestrained Dutch females took part in five test sessions. On each test session, they were exposed to one of five conditions (active smelling of clearly noticeable odors representing food high in carbohydrates, protein, and fat, low in calories, and a no-odor condition for 3-min) and assessed on specific appetite, food preferences and intake. Odor exposure increased congruent appetite after protein-related odor exposure. Similarly, protein-related odor exposure influenced the liking for protein foods and the preference ranking for savory products. However, food intake was not affected by smelling congruent food odors. Together this indicates that exposure to (aware) food odors may mostly influence appetite, but does not impact subsequent food intake. Moreover, appetite seems to be triggered by taste qualities rather than macronutrient information of the food, as signaled by olfactory cues. Future studies should investigate the role of awareness in more detail, to fully understand how odors might be used to steer people towards healthier food choices.