长期服役后低压转子30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的性能研究

以1根长期服役的30Cr2Ni4MoV钢低压转子为例,通过显微组织分析、室温拉伸、高温拉伸和冲击以及韧脆性转变温度试验等方法研究了低压转子不同部位的显微组织和性能,并分析了低压转子强度和韧性变化的原因.结果表明:在低压转子电机端中心部位出现C、Cr、Ni和Mo等成分的偏析;转子不同部位的组织形态区别明显,服役时温度高的部位未发生明显的碳化物析出增多和颗粒粗化;转子不同部位的室温拉伸性能差别较大,服役时温度高的部位的拉伸强度未出现明显降低;转子外缘不同部位冲击韧性相同,但近中心孔不同部位的冲击韧性差别大;转子不同部位总冲击能量的区别主要表现为裂纹扩展能的差异,但裂纹形成能无明显区别;服役时转子高温部位的韧脆性转变温度升高;由于低压转子尺寸大,造成制造时不同部位的成分和显微组织的差别,这是导致不同部位性能差异的主要原因.     

长期服役后高中压转子30Cr1Mo1V钢的性能研究

通过室温拉伸、高温拉伸和冲击等试验研究了经过长期服役后的高中压转子30Cr1Mo1V钢不同位置的性能变化,并分析了转子强度和韧性变化的原因.结果表明：转子服役温度高的部位碳化物的形貌、分布和大小均发生变化,贝氏体和铁素体中的碳化物析出、聚集或长大,而原奥氏体晶界和贝氏体与铁素体边界处碳化物析出增多,碳化物颗粒变得粗大;不同位置的拉伸性能差别不大,服役温度最高位置的拉伸强度最低,冲击韧性下降;不同部位总冲击能量的降低主要表现为裂纹形成能的降低,而裂纹扩展能区别很小;高中压转子30Cr1Mo1V钢服役时高温位置的韧脆性转变温度（FATT50）比低温位置明显升高.     

粗晶对2Cr12 NiMo1 W1V钢性能的影响

测试了直径为135 mm的粗晶2Cr12NiMo1W1V圆钢不同位置的室温和高温拉伸、冲击、硬度、蠕变持久性能,并与细晶2Cr12NiMo1W1V钢性能进行了对比。结果表明,在不同位置取样测定的各项性能比较均匀,且均满足标准要求;粗晶材料的室温拉伸、冲击等性能有一定富裕度,但与细晶材料相比还存在较大差距;粗晶材料的高温拉伸和蠕变持久性能优异,特别是蠕变持久性能远好于细晶材料。     

G115钢650℃时效的组织与性能研究

通过对G115钢经650℃高温时效不同时间后进行拉伸、硬度、冲击试验,并利用SEM及光学显微镜观察其显微组织,研究了G115钢时效后力学性能变化情况。结果表明:G115钢650℃时效后室温屈服强度和抗拉强度呈缓慢下降趋势,硬度值在时效1000h后小幅升高,随后呈缓慢下降趋势;冲击韧性在时效1000h后急剧下降,随后冲击吸收能量趋于稳定。G115钢时效后组织发生了回复,时效初期晶内和晶界形成了大量的第二相颗粒,沉淀强化作用增强,硬度值升高,但由于第二相颗粒在晶界呈链状分布,造成拉伸性能和冲击韧性降低;随着时效时间延长,硬度值、拉伸性能和冲击韧性逐渐降低。     

3.5％Ni—1.7％Cr型转子用钢的回火脆性和塑脆转变温度的计算

3.5％Ni—1.7％Cr型转子用钢的回火脆性是由于杂质元素(P、Sn、Sb、Si等)在品界的析聚。表征脆性的塑脆转变温度与品界杂质浓度、硬度和品粒度有关。试验结果表明,在一定条件下,转变温度与上述三因素之间具有简单的线性关系。本文在试验和理论分析基础上,通过包括三个参变量(晶界杂质浓度,硬度和晶粒度)的泰勒级数展开式,导出转变温度计算公式——脆化方程。脆化方程可以用来:(1)计算回火脆化钢的塑脆转变温度;(2)比较各种杂质元素的脆化作用;(3)评价各种元素的有效作用。     

老化30Cr2MoV汽轮机转子钢FATT预测模型的建立

实验选用化学腐蚀法预测老化30Cr2MoV汽轮机转子钢的热脆化程度,用苦味酸添加十二烷基苯磺酸钠(SDBS)作为蚀刻液进行化学腐蚀实验.通过正交实验确定较理想实验条件,并在此实验条件下,对12个具有不同韧脆转变温度的试样进行不同温度下的腐蚀实验,找出各温度下晶界宽度参数与FATT50之间的对应关系,确定回归参数,用统计分析软件SPSS对所得数据进行多元线性回归分析,得出老化汽轮机转子钢FATT50的预测模型,经验证明该模型预测精度在±200C之内,精度较高.     

晶界M23C6碳化物对IN617合金力学性能的影响

研究了IN617合金在760℃时效过程中组织结构与室温冲击和拉伸性能的关系,并借助扫描电镜和透射电镜对合金时效过程中的微观结构、室温冲击及拉伸断口进行了观察与分析.结果表明:在IN617合金时效后,主要析出相为M23C6碳化物;晶界M23C6碳化物对强度和塑性、冲击吸收能量的作用是:一方面,它阻碍晶界滑移,起到强化作用,从而提高了合金强度;另一方面,它导致界面结合强度降低,晶界成为断裂的发源地,从而引起冲击吸收能量和塑性降低;合金时效后,断裂模式由塑性断裂转变为脆性断裂.     

50CrVA弹簧钢的低温组织及性能研究

对比研究了50CrVA弹簧钢在室温和低温冷却条件下的拉伸及冲击性能,分析其断裂机理,并采用金相显微镜对组织进行观察。结果表明:低温冷却时,材料的组织内部形成少量网状铁素体及碳化物,破坏了基体组织的连续性,导致材料的塑性和低温冲击韧性降低。低温拉伸材料的强度下降缓慢,而塑性显著降低。低温冲击的扩展能随冷却温度的降低显著降低,裂纹扩展速度加快,材料表现出明显的冷脆转化现象;其室温冲击断裂机理为晶粒尺寸控制机理,低温冲击断裂机理主要为碳化物控制机理。     

P92钢时效过程中冲击性能和硬度变化的试验

对P92钢在650℃下进行了长达10 000 h的时效试验,并研究了时效过程中P92钢的冲击性能和硬度的变化.结果表明:P92钢具有一定程度的热时效脆化倾向,时效初期脆化速度较快,时效500 h时冲击吸收能量约下降50%,随后放缓并逐渐趋于稳定;根据冲击吸收能量与回火参数之间的变化关系,推出600℃下母材和焊缝金属的时效脆化特性,在整个设计寿命内,虽然母材发生一定程度的时效脆化,但冲击韧性仍然较高;焊缝金属在600℃运行5 000 h时即发生很大程度的脆化,冲击韧性较低;P92钢的硬度随时效时间的增加呈下降趋势,但变化不明显.     

用化学腐蚀法检测老化30Cr2MoV汽轮机转子钢热脆化程度的研究

根据试验用30Cr2MoV汽轮机转子钢化学成分和材料性能等特点,尝试了用硝酸和醋酸的混合液作为蚀刻液对老化汽轮机转子钢进行化学腐蚀实验.得到腐蚀晶界沟槽宽度与韧脆转变温度(FATT50)的关系,并讨论了影响FATT50的其它影响因子.用MINITAB软件对影响FATT50的所用参数进行多元线性全回归分析,建立了FATT50的预测模型.用预测模型计算各钢样的FATT50,所得FATT50的预测值与测量值之间的误差范围在±15℃之内,预测精度较高.     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

Contents in Volume 23,2014

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Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Exergetic evaluation of 5 biowastes-to-biofuels routes via gasification

This paper presents the exergy analysis results for the production of several biofuels, i.e., SNG (synthetic natural gas), methanol, Fischer–Tropsch fuels, hydrogen, as well as heat and electricity, from several biowastes generated in the Dutch province of Friesland, selected as one of the typical European regions. Biowastes have been classified in 5 virtual streams according to their ultimate and proximate analysis. All production chains have been modeled in Aspen Plus in order to analyze their technical performance. The common steps for all the production chains are: pre-treatment, gasification, gas cleaning, water–gas-shift reactions, catalytic reactors, final gas separation and upgrading. Optionally a gas turbine and steam turbines are used to produce heat and electricity from unconverted gas and heat removal, respectively. The results show that, in terms of mass conversion, methanol production seems to be the most efficient process for all the biowastes. SNG synthesis is preferred when exergetic efficiency is the objective parameter, but hydrogen process is more efficient when the performance is analyzed by means of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The main exergy losses account for the gasification section, except in the electricity and heat production chain, where the combined cycle is less efficient.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Controls on the Karaha–Telaga Bodas geothermal reservoir,Indonesia

Karaha–Telaga Bodas is a partially vapor-dominated, fracture-controlled geothermal system located adjacent to Galunggung Volcano in western Java, Indonesia. The geothermal system consists of: (1) a caprock, ranging from several hundred to 1600 m in thickness, and characterized by a steep, conductive temperature gradient and low permeability; (2) an underlying vapor-dominated zone that extends below sea level; and (3) a deep liquid-dominated zone with measured temperatures up to 353 °C. Heat is provided by a tabular granodiorite stock encountered at about 3 km depth. A structural analysis of the geothermal system shows that the effective base of the reservoir is controlled either by the boundary between brittle and ductile deformational regimes or by the closure and collapse of fractures within volcanic rocks located above the brittle/ductile transition. The base of the caprock is determined by the distribution of initially low-permeability lithologies above the reservoir; the extent of pervasive clay alteration that has significantly reduced primary rock permeabilities; the distribution of secondary minerals deposited by descending waters; and, locally, by a downward change from a strike-slip to an extensional stress regime. Fluid-producing zones are controlled by both matrix and fracture permeabilities. High matrix permeabilities are associated with lacustrine, pyroclastic, and epiclastic deposits. Productive fractures are those showing the greatest tendency to slip and dilate under the present-day stress conditions. Although the reservoir appears to be in pressure communication across its length, fluid, and gas chemistries vary laterally, suggesting the presence of isolated convection cells.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.