Analyzing composition and generation rates of biomedical waste in selected hospitals of Uttarakhand,India

In India, a few studies have been conducted for analyzing the generation rates and composition of medical waste (MW). Inadequate information about the amount and composition of MW results in ineffective management practices. The present study seeks to evaluate healthcare waste (HCW) generation rates by healthcare facilities (HCFs) available in Uttarakhand, a northern state of India. Study also focuses on modeling the quantity of different types of MW generated at various HCFs and determining significant factors contributing towards MW generation. Seasonal variation in amount of MW generated from various HCFs has also been considered. To achieve these objectives, cross-sectional as well as longitudinal data have been collected from various HCFs in Uttarakhand, India. The survey revealed that around 36% of the total HCFs did not segregate their MW as per policy guidelines. Cross-sectional data for May 2015 were collected from 75 HCFs to analyze and model the composition and quantity of HCW generated. Multiple Linear Regression and Artificial Neural Network techniques were applied to model cross-sectional data. In the composition of the overall MW, ‘yellow waste’ carries the maximum share, followed by ‘red waste’ and then the ‘blue waste’. In addition, the ‘type of HCF’ and ‘bed occupancy’ have been modeled as the important factors, contributing towards the MW generations rates. Longitudinal data for 2 years (2013 and 2014) were collected to examine seasonal variation in HCW generation rates using polynomial regression analysis. Result shows that MW quantity also varies with the change in the season. Findings of the study will help hospitals and waste treatment facilities to predict amount of waste that may be generated, and plan resources towards efficient handling and disposal of MW.     

The status of flood wastes treatment and future tasks in South Korea

Natural disasters such as typhoon, flood, and heavy rainfall cause damage in South Korea every year during the summer season. After each rainy season, South Korea suffers not only from flood wastes but also from debris that pile up at dams and stagnate at the estuary of the river. Thus, it is very important to handle these types of wastes as quickly as possible to recover from flood damages and to prevent environmental contamination such as offensive odor and water contamination by the leachate from flood wastes. Other countries such as Japan or USA have established and implemented regulations and guidelines for flood waste. Note, however, that South Korea did not establish practical guidelines; hence, the urgency of establishing practical measures for flood waste. In this study, we suggested various ways of making environmentally sound guidelines including the method of reducing the amount of flood waste by environmentally sound treatment process for flood waste, and the method of setting up and operating the temporary storage site for purposes of efficient separation and treatment of flood waste.     

A novel methodology to estimate the evolution of construction waste in construction sites

This paper focuses on the accumulation of construction waste generated throughout the erection of new residential buildings. A special methodology was developed in order to provide a model that will predict the flow of construction waste. The amount of waste and its constituents, produced on 10 relatively large construction sites (7000-32,000 m² of built area) was monitored periodically for a limited time. A model that predicts the accumulation of construction waste was developed based on these field observations. According to the model, waste accumulates in an exponential manner, i.e. smaller amounts are generated during the early stages of construction and increasing amounts are generated towards the end of the project. The total amount of waste from these sites was estimated at 0.2 m³ per 1 m² floor area. A good correlation was found between the model predictions and actual data from the field survey.     

Factors that affect the quality of the bio-waste fraction of selectively collected solid waste in Catalonia

The present study determines the composition of the bio-waste fraction of waste and establishes correlations between the quality of this fraction and socio-economic/demographic variables. According to the Catalan Waste Agency [Agència de Residus de Catalunya (2004). Statistical data. Available from: ], the quantities of glass, paper/cardboard, light packaging and biodegradable material (those components of municipal waste that can be recovered, and have a separate collection) that were selectively collected in 2004 represent 25.6% by weight of the total municipal waste generated. There is a large spread of values from different cities. It is important to bear in mind that this percentage was calculated using the total weights of all of the materials present in the different bins used for selective solid waste collection, without taking account of the fact that many of these bins contain a certain amount of other, undesirable waste. In order to be able to determine the actual quantities that are recovered, it is necessary to establish the quality of the waste collected. To establish the quality of the waste collected, 350 samples were analysed, corresponding to the bins for the bio-waste fraction of solid waste in 193 different cities in Catalonia. Seven levels of quality were established for the study, depending on the amount of undesirable waste present. The results show certain correlations between the socio-economic/demographic factors studied and the percentage of undesirable waste present in the samples. The correlations presented here are not intended to be predictive, but rather indicative of a tendency, which should help us gain a better understanding of the behaviour of the society studied with respect to the separation of solid household waste at origin.     

Utilization of post-production waste from fruit processing for energetic purposes: analysis of Polish potential and case study

There is no doubt that waste products from fruit and vegetable processing are difficult to manage. In that context, partial substitution of conventional energy substrates by industrial waste is an alternative, as it helps to utilize residues and at the same time to reduce the fixed cost of running business. The aim of the article is to analyse the possibilities of using fruit processing wastes for energy purposes in Poland. The assessment on a country scale was based on the data of the Central Statistical Office. Analogical analysis was based on the data collected from selected production plant. The obtained results show that the fruit processing waste can be successfully utilized for energy purposes. At the same time, problems of organizational nature should not be overlooked, as they can significantly decrease that potential. Although the amount of energy obtained from this source is basically negligible in the Polish energy balance, the environmental factor should not be ignored also. Therefore, the utilization of waste products from fruit processing should be a topic of interest, as it works in two ways, i.e., through reducing the amount of waste and increasing production of renewable energy.

     

Municipal solid waste generation in municipalities: quantifying impacts of household structure, commercial waste and domestic fuel

Waste management planning requires reliable data concerning waste generation, influencing factors on waste generation and forecasts of waste quantities based on facts. This paper aims at identifying and quantifying differences between different municipalities' municipal solid waste (MSW) collection quantities based on data from waste management and on socio-economic indicators. A large set of 116 indicators from 542 municipalities in the Province of Styria was investigated. The resulting regression model included municipal tax revenue per capita, household size and the percentage of buildings with solid fuel heating systems. The model explains 74.3% of the MSW variation and the model assumptions are met. Other factors such as tourism, home composting or age distribution of the population did not significantly improve the model. According to the model, 21% of MSW collected in Styria was commercial waste and 18% of the generated MSW was burned in domestic heating systems. While the percentage of commercial waste is consistent with literature data, practically no literature data are available for the quantity of MSW burned, which seems to be overestimated by the model. The resulting regression model was used as basis for a waste prognosis model (Beigl and Lebersorger, in preparation).     

Climate Change Implications on Flood Response of a Mountainous Watershed

The modification of the flood response due to future climate change is presented for the Illecillewaet watershed of British Columbia, Canada. The Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling Analysis General Circulation Model (CGCMa1) was used for the assessment of changes of precipitation and temperature due to climate change. The runoff was simulated using the UBC watershed model and considering, also, changes on the spatial distribution of precipitation with elevation, cloud cover, glaciers, vegetation distribution, vegetation biomass production, and plant physiology. The results show that the future climate would be wetter and warmer than the present climate affecting the type, the magnitude and the temporal distribution of floods as well as the frequency of flood peaks. The above changes in the flood response of the study watershed could be explained by the change of the form of precipitation from snowfall to rainfall, the consequent decrease of the snowpack, and the initiation of the snowmelt earlier in the season, under the altered climate.     

Early detection and evaluation of waste through sensorized containers for a collection monitoring application

The present study describes a novel application for use in the monitoring of municipal solid waste, based on distributed sensor technology and geographical information systems. Original field testing and evaluation of the application were carried out in Pudong, Shanghai (PR China).The local waste management system in Pudong features particular requirements related to the rapidly increasing rate of waste production. In view of the fact that collected waste is currently deployed to landfills or to incineration plants within the context investigated, the key aspects to be taken into account in waste collection procedures include monitoring of the overall amount of waste produced, quantitative measurement of the waste present at each collection point and identification of classes of material present in the collected waste. The case study described herein focuses particularly on the above mentioned aspects, proposing the implementation of a network of sensorized waste containers linked to a data management system.Containers used were equipped with a set of sensors mounted onto standard waste bins. The design, implementation and validation procedures applied are subsequently described. The main aim to be achieved by data collection and evaluation was to provide for feasibility analysis of the final device. Data pertaining to the content of waste containers, sampled and processed by means of devices validated on two purpose-designed prototypes, were therefore uploaded to a central monitoring server using GPRS connection. The data monitoring and management modules are integrated into an existing application used by local municipal authorities.A field test campaign was performed in the Pudong area. The system was evaluated in terms of real data flow from the network nodes (containers) as well as in terms of optimization functions, such as collection vehicle routing and scheduling. The most important outcomes obtained were related to calculations of waste weight and volume. The latter data were subsequently used as parameters for the routing optimization of collection trucks and material density evaluation.     

Composition analysis of dental solid waste in Brazil

When developing proper waste management strategies, it is essential to characterize the volume and composition of solid waste. The aim of this work was to evaluate the composition of dental waste produced by three dental health services in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Two universities, one public and one private, and one public dental health service were selected. Waste collection took place from March to November 2007. During this period, three samples were collected from each dental health service. The total amount of dental waste produced in one day of dental work was manually separated into three categories: infectious and potentially infectious waste, accounting for 24.3% of the total waste; non-infectious waste, accounting for 48.1%; and domestic-type waste, accounting for 27.6% (percentages are for mean weights of solid waste). Our results showed that most of the waste considered as biomedical may be misclassified, consequently making the infectious waste amount appear much larger. In addition, our results suggest that the best waste minimization method is recycling, and they help to define an appropriate waste management system in all three of the dental health services involved in this study.     

An attempt to perform water balance in a Brazilian municipal solid waste landfill

This paper presents an attempt to model the water balance in the metropolitan center landfill (MCL) in Salvador, Brazil. Aspects such as the municipal solid waste (MSW) initial water content, mass loss due to decomposition, MSW liquid expelling due to compression and those related to weather conditions, such as the amount of rainfall and evaporation are considered. Superficial flow and infiltration were modeled considering the waste and the hydraulic characteristics (permeability and soil-water retention curves) of the cover layer and simplified uni-dimensional empirical models. In order to validate the modeling procedure, data from one cell at the landfill were used. Monthly waste entry, volume of collected leachate and leachate level inside the cell were monitored. Water balance equations and the compressibility of the MSW were used to calculate the amount of leachate stored in the cell and the corresponding leachate level. Measured and calculated values of the leachate level inside the cell were similar and the model was able to capture the main trends of the water balance behavior during the cell operational period.     

The origins of municipal solid waste: The relations between residues from packaging materials and food

Data for the composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) from around the world are used to further examine a previously reported statistical correlation between the fraction of food residues and the fractions of paper and board, metal, glass and plastics residues in MSW. For data from many locations, these correlations are statistically significant; multiple linear regressions are computed. The fraction of food waste decreases as the fractions of waste from paper and board, metals and glass increase.The situation in the U.S.A. is examined further for just packaging waste. Similar correlations are established for the fraction of food residues and the fractions of paper and board and plastics packaging residues for predicted compositions for 1980 to 2000. Similar correlations for the U.K. are not statistically significant. Some reasons for this are postulated.The results of the statistical analyses predict that a strategy for decreasing the fraction of food waste in MSW is to increase the use of food packaging by some amount, especially plastics and metals, contrary to conventional wisdom.     

Model development for household waste prevention behaviour

Understanding waste prevention behaviour (WPB) could enable local governments and decision makers to design more-effective policies for reducing the amount of waste that is generated. By merging well-known attitude–behaviour theories with elements from wider models from environmental psychology, an extensive cognitive framework that provides new and valuable insights is developed for understanding the involvement of individuals in waste prevention. The results confirm the usefulness of the theory of planned behaviour and of Schwartz’s altruistic behaviour model as bases for modelling participation in waste prevention. A more elaborate integrated model of prevention was shown to be necessary for the complete analysis of attitudinal aspects associated with waste prevention. A postal survey of 158 respondents provided empirical support for eight of 12 hypotheses. The proposed structural equation indicates that personal norms and perceived behaviour control are the main predictors and that, unlike the case of recycling, subjective norms have a weak influence on WPB. It also suggests that, since social norms have not presented a direct influence, WPB is likely to be influenced by a concern for the environment and the community as well by perceptions of moral obligation and inconvenience. Results also proved that recycling and waste prevention represent different dimensions of waste management behaviour requiring particular approaches to increase individuals’ engagement in future policies.     

A Forecast Model Of Refuse Tonnage With Recapture And Uncertainty Bounds

A spreadsheet model for forecasting solid waste tonnages is described. The model uses generation coefficients from the technical literature associated with individual material components (paper, glass, metals, plastics and rubber, organic materials, construction waste, inerts and other) to express the amount of waste produced per capita and per employee in the labor force. Estimates of quantities being generated by two major groups, namely domestic and industrial/commercial/institutional sources are reflected in the model's output. Using this disaggregated format, the model estimates total waste, recaptured waste (as a result of policy initiatives), and net refuse. Confidence intervals are developed using a regression model related to the business cycle. Two worked examples are given for data obtained in Canada.     

Characteristics of healthcare wastes

A comprehensive understanding of the quantities and characteristics of the material that needs to be managed is one of the most basic steps in the development of a plan for solid waste management. In this case, the material under consideration is the solid waste generated in healthcare facilities, also known as healthcare waste. Unfortunately, limited reliable information is available in the open literature on the quantities and characteristics of the various types of wastes that are generated in healthcare facilities. Thus, sound management of these wastes, particularly in developing countries, often is problematic. This article provides information on the quantities and properties of healthcare wastes in various types of facilities located in developing countries, as well as in some industrialized countries. Most of the information has been obtained from the open literature, although some information has been collected by the authors and from reports available to the authors. Only data collected within approximately the last 15 years and using prescribed methodologies are presented. The range of hospital waste generation (both infectious and mixed solid waste fractions) varies from 0.016 to 3.23kg/bed-day. The relatively wide variation is due to the fact that some of the facilities surveyed in Ulaanbaatar include out-patient services and district health clinics; these facilities essentially provide very basic services and thus the quantities of waste generated are relatively small. On the other hand, the reported amount of infectious (clinical, yellow bag) waste varied from 0.01 to 0.65kg/bed-day. The characteristics of the components of healthcare wastes, such as the bulk density and the calorific value, have substantial variability. This literature review and the associated attempt at a comparative analysis point to the need for worldwide consensus on the terms and characteristics that describe wastes from healthcare facilities. Such a consensus would greatly facilitate comparative analyses among different facilities, studies and countries.     

Solid Waste Recycling And Reuse In Bangkok

Materials recovered from solid waste in Bangkok are mainly glass bottles, paper and paper products, plastic products and metals. Materials are separated at three different stages of the collection process: at the source, prior to collection; by the crews of the collection vehicle; and by the scavengers at the dump site. The total daily tonnage of recyclable garbage collected at the source by the waste pickers is estimated at 286 tonnes, about 5% of the garbage collected by the city. There are small scale recycling shops (SSR) located around the main disposal sites where collected materials are sold by the collection crews and the scavengers. The quantity of materials delivered to the SSR shops by the collection crew vary between 1-6 tonnes per day. The amount of materials recovered by the scavengers (at the dump site) varies between 50-150 kg person^-1 day^-1. Therefore around 7.5% of the solid waste is recycled. In Bangkok both formal and informal sectors manufacture paper pulp, cardboard boxes and magazines from the recyclable paper. Paper products which account for 55% of the total waste stream are considered as the largest "product group" in the municipal solid waste. Recyclable glass (1-3% of the total waste stream) or cullet is used to manufacture plain glasses or cups. Plastics constitute about 10-15% of the waste stream. The benefit/cost ratios of production of most of these industries were reported to be higher than 1.5. In order to enhance recycling, legislative measures need to be introduced and enforced. In Thailand, there is, however, no law concerning recycling. There is no incentive for the consumer to separate solid waste for recycling, as the prices of waste in Bangkok are low and inconsistent. Therefore the pricing system should be more organized for recycling to be more effective.     

Comparison of old and new municipal solid waste management systems in Denizli, Turkey

Rapid economic growth, increasing population and change in living standards contribute to increasing the generation rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Denizli city, like other Turkish cities. The improper and poor MSW management system (old system) in Denizli caused environmental problems originating from the uncontrolled release of methane and leachate. In addition, the disposal of recyclable materials in unsanitary landfills is responsible for the consumption and destruction of natural sources. This paper presents a general overview of old and new MSW management practices in Denizli. Detailed data on MSW management practices including collection, transportation, disposal and recycling have been presented. The amount of solid waste generated in Denizli over the last decade has increased steadily over the years, from 108,500 tons in 1995 to 179,495 tons in 2006. The average MSW generation rate was found to be 1.23kg/day per capita. The major constituent of MSW in Denizli is food waste, but the percentage of recyclable waste has increased significantly recently. Except for metal wastes, the percentages of recyclable waste materials in Denizli are higher than in all neighborhood cities. The objective of this study is to compare the old and new MSW management systems in Denizli city. The MSW management system has been changed entirely last five years. A dumpsite was closed and a sanitary landfill with a composting facility was constructed. In addition, source separated collection has been carried out since 2002. The quantity of recyclable waste collected increased from 195 to 1549 tons. The amount of recyclable waste will continue to be increased by expanding the source separation collection system to all the districts of the city and preventing scavenging. Thus, revenue from recyclable waste ($7227 in 2006) is expected to increase. In addition, the capacity of the composting facility will be increased. Most importantly, information to increase public participation and awareness in municipal recovery programs has to be provided.     

The use of chemical composition data in waste management planning--a case study

As the waste industry continues to move from a disposal-based system to one based on a combination of recovery options, the need for information on the composition of waste increases and this is reflected by the amount of information on the physical composition of municipal solid wastes that is now available. However, there is far less information on the chemical composition of municipal solid waste. The results from a number of chemical surveys from Europe are compared and show a reasonable degree of agreement, but several problems were identified with the data. Chemical and physical compositional data are combined in a case study example to investigate the flow of key potential pollutants in an integrated solid waste management system that uses materials recycling, composting, incineration and landfilling. This case study has shown that an integrated waste management strategy diverts lead and cadmium away from composting and recycling to incineration, which effectively isolates these elements from the environment through efficient capture of the pollutants followed by secure landfilling or recycling of the residues. However, further work is needed to determine the distribution of mercury in incineration residues and its fate when the residues are landfilled.     

Evaluation of investments in recycling centres for construction and demolition wastes in Brazilian municipalities

There are very few construction and demolition (C&D) waste recycling centres in Brazil. To encourage the building and operation of new units, data were collected and analysed relating to C&D waste management and recycling in Brazil. Based on the results of this analysis, a conceptual model is presented for conducting viability studies of future C&D waste recycling centres. Applying this model to verify the viability of private recycling centres, the results show that under current market conditions in Brazil, C&D waste recycling centres are not financially feasible based solely on revenue from the sale of processed products. Nevertheless, under the same market conditions, the recycling centres could be economically viable for public authorities depending on the particular circumstances of each municipality. The feasibility, however, depends on continuity and the production volume reached. The conceptual model, the results of its applications and the discussions about the experiences of existing centres can strongly support public authorities and private initiatives in their decision-making about investments in Brazil and in other developing countries.     

Impact of food waste disposers on the generation rate and characteristics of municipal solid waste

Field surveys were carried out to ascertain the reduction in the generation rate of municipal solid waste as a result of the use of food waste disposers (FWDs). The generation rate and characteristics of garbage and of the food waste ground by FWDs in households were investigated, and the effect of FWDs was discussed. In a medium-sized village, the amount of garbage collected per collection decreased from 251.2 kg to 114.7 kg as a result of FWD use. The unit loading of ground food waste was estimated to be 111 g/cap·day. In a small village, the amount of garbage collected weekly decreased from 175 kg to 112 kg. The average unit loading of ground food waste was measured and found to be 126 g/cap·day. The reduction rate of garbage varied from 25% to 39% monthly and the average reduction rate was 31% throughout the surveying period. Dramatic variations in the characteristics of the collected garbage were recognized: the ratio of food waste on a dry basis declined by more than half, the moisture content decreased to half or less, the combustible matter content increased approximately 1.7 times or more, and the lower heating value increased approximately 2.0 times or more compared to the case without FWD use.