The cytochrome P450 genesis locus: the origin and evolution of animal cytochrome P450s

The neighbourhoods of cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes in deuterostome genomes, as well as those of the cnidarians Nematostella vectensis and Acropora digitifera and the placozoan Trichoplax adhaerens were examined to find clues concerning the evolution of CYP genes in animals. CYP genes created by the 2R whole genome duplications in chordates have been identified. Both microsynteny and macrosynteny were used to identify genes that coexisted near CYP genes in the animal ancestor. We show that all 11 CYP clans began in a common gene environment. The evidence implies the existence of a single locus, which we term the ‘cytochrome P450 genesis locus’, where one progenitor CYP gene duplicated to create a tandem set of genes that were precursors of the 11 animal CYP clans: CYP Clans 2, 3, 4, 7, 19, 20, 26, 46, 51, 74 and mitochondrial. These early CYP genes existed side by side before the origin of cnidarians, possibly with a few additional genes interspersed. The Hox gene cluster, WNT genes, an NK gene cluster and at least one ARF gene were close neighbours to this original CYP locus. According to this evolutionary scenario, the CYP74 clan originated from animals and not from land plants nor from a common ancestor of plants and animals. The CYP7 and CYP19 families that are chordate-specific belong to CYP clans that seem to have originated in the CYP genesis locus as well, even though this requires many gene losses to explain their current distribution. The approach to uncovering the CYP genesis locus overcomes confounding effects because of gene conversion, sequence divergence, gene birth and death, and opens the way to understanding the biodiversity of CYP genes, families and subfamilies, which in animals has been obscured by more than 600 Myr of evolution.     

Productive and non-productive complexes in cytochrome P450-containing systems

The equilibrium dissociation constants K_D, the complex association / dissociation rate constants (k _on /k _off) and lifetimes of the complexes of redox partners were measured for three cytochrome P450-containing monooxygenase systems (P450cam, P450scc, and P450 2B4) under hydroxylation conditions. The Q parameter representing the ratio of protein-protein complex lifetime (τ _lT ) to time required for a single hydroxylation cycle (τ_turnover) was introduced for estimation of productivity of complexes formed within the systems studied. The Q parameter was insignificantly changed upon transition from the oxidation to hydroxylation conditions. Lifetimes (τ _lT ) for the binary complexes formed within the P450cam and the P450scc systems obligatory requiring an intermediate electron transfer protein between the reductase and cytochrome P450 could not realize hydroxylation reactions for substrates with known τ_turnover and so they were non-productive while the binary complexes formed within the P450 2B4 system, not requiring such intermediate electron-transfer protein, appeared to be productive. Formation of ternary complexes was demonstrated under hydroxylation conditions in all three systems. Analysis of Q values led to the conclusion that the ternary complexes formed within the P450cam and the P450scc systems were productive. In the case of the P450 2B4 system, more than half (about 60%) ternary complexes were also found to be productive.     

细胞色素P450介导的昆虫抗药性的分子机制

细胞色素P450(简称P450) 对杀虫剂的代谢作用直接影响到昆虫对杀虫剂的耐受性和杀虫剂对昆虫的选择性,由P450介导的杀虫剂代谢解毒作用的增强是昆虫产生抗药性的常见而重要的机制。P450介导的杀虫剂代谢抗性具有普遍性、交互抗性与进化可塑性的特点,涉及P450基因重复与基因扩增、基因转录上调以及结构基因的变异等多样化的分子机制,并且多重机制的共同作用可以导致高水平抗药性。这些研究发现说明,无论是昆虫抗药性机制的研究,还是抗药性监测与治理都要有动态的、因地制宜的理念。     

Establishment of a yeast system that stably expresses human cytochrome P450 reductase: application for the study of drug metabolism of cytochrome P450s in vitro

Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) hold a balance in studying pharmacokinetics, toxico-kinetics, drug metabolism, and drug-drug interactions, which require association with cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) to achieve optimal activity. A novel system of Saccharomyces cerevisiae useful for expression studies of mammalian microsomal CYPs was established. Human CPR (hCPR) was co-expressed with human CYP3A4 (hCYP3A4) in this system, and two expression plasmids pTpLC and pYeplac195-3A4 containing the cDNA of hCPR and hCYP3A4 were constructed, respectively. The two plasmids were applied first and controlled by phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter. S. cerevisiae BWG1-7alpha transformed with the expression plasmids produced the respective proteins in the expected molecular sizes reactive with both anti-hCYP3A4 immunoglobulin (Ig) and anti-hCPR Ig. The activity of hCPR in yeast BWG-CPR was 443.2 nmol reduced cytochrome c/min/mg, which was about three times the CPR activity of the microsome prepared from the parental yeast. The protein amount of hCYP3A4 in BWG-CPR/3A4 was 35.53 pmol/mg, and the 6beta-hydroxylation testosterone formation activity of hCYP3A4 expressed was 7.5 nmol/min/nmol CYP, 30 times higher than the activity of hCYP3A4 expressed in the parental yeast, and almost two times the activity of hCYP3A4 from homologous human liver microsome. Meanwhile, BWG-CPR/3A4 retained 100 generations under nonselective culture conditions, indicating this yeast was a mitotically stable transformant. BWG-CPR was further tested daily by the PCR amplification of hCPR of yeast genome, Western blot analysis, and the activity assay of hCPR of yeast microsome. This special expression host for CYPs was validated to be stable and efficient for the expression of CYPs, applying as an effective selection model for the drug metabolism in vitro.     

昆虫细胞色素P450研究的一些新进展

报道了有关细胞色素P45 0研究的一些新发现。果蝇和冈比亚按蚊基因组测序的完成 ,使人类对昆虫P45 0的多样性有一完整的概念 ,已查明果蝇和冈比亚按蚊基因组中分别含有 90种和 1 1 1种P45 0基因。P45 0介导的果蝇对DDT的抗性被证明是Cyp6g1基因超量表达的结果。昆虫可以窃听植物分子信号 (水杨酸、茉莉酮酸 ) ,通过P45 0的诱导机制增强自身对植物防御物质的反防御能力。从分子水平上鉴定了 2个参与蜕皮素合成的线粒体P45 0基因。细胞色素P45 0在昆虫信息素降解中的作用得到鉴定。     

Unusual properties of the cytochrome P450 superfamily

During the early years of cytochrome P450 research, a picture of conserved properties arose from studies of mammalian forms of these monooxygenases. They included the protohaem prosthetic group, the cysteine residue that coordinates to the haem iron and the reduced CO difference spectrum. Alternatively, the most variable feature of P450s was the enzymatic activities, which led to the conclusion that there are a large number of these enzymes, most of which have yet to be discovered. More recently, studies of these enzymes in other eukaryotes and in prokaryotes have led to the discovery of unexpected P450 properties. Many are variations of the original properties, whereas others are difficult to explain because of their unique nature relative to the rest of the known members of the superfamily. These novel properties expand our appreciation of the broad view of P450 structure and function, and generate curiosity concerning the evolution of P450s. In some cases, structural properties, previously not found in P450s, can lead to enzymatic activities impacting the biological function of organisms containing these enzymes; whereas, in other cases, the biological reason for the variations are not easily understood. Herein, we present particularly interesting examples in detail rather than cataloguing them all.     

昆虫基因启动子及细胞色素P450基因启动子研究进展

细胞色素P450是一类重要的解毒酶系。昆虫在各种内源或外源性有毒物质的胁迫下,通过调控体内细胞色素P450的过表达,对有毒化合物进行解毒代谢,从而适应不利环境。在昆虫体内,P450基因表达的调控主要发生在转录水平上,启动子作为基因的一部分,能够与RNA聚合酶结合形成转录起始复合体,进而控制基因表达的起始时间和表达程度。基于此,就昆虫启动子的分析及功能验证的主要方法、昆虫启动子的结构特征及昆虫细胞色素P450基因启动予的一些研究进展进行概述,以期为昆虫细胞色素P450基因启动子的深入研究提供借鉴。     

Biocatalytic role of cytochrome P450s to produce antibiotics: A review

Cytochrome P450s belong to a family of heme-binding monooxygenases, which catalyze regio- and stereospecific functionalisation of C–H, C–C, and C–N bonds, including heteroatom oxidation, oxidative C–C bond cleavages, and nitrene transfer. P450s are considered useful biocatalysts for the production of pharmaceutical products, fine chemicals, and bioremediating agents. Despite having tremendous biotechnological potential, being heme-monooxygenases, P450s require either autologous or heterologous redox partner(s) to perform chemical transformations. Randomly distributed P450s throughout a bacterial genome and devoid of particular redox partners in natural products biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) showed an extra challenge to reveal their pharmaceutical potential. However, continuous efforts have been made to understand their involvement in antibiotic biosynthesis and their modification, and this review focused on such BGCs. Here, particularly, we have discussed the role of P450s involved in the production of macrolides and aminocoumarin antibiotics, nonribosomal peptide (NRPSs) antibiotics, ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide (RiPPs) antibiotics, and others. Several reactions catalyzed by P450s, as well as the role of their redox partners involved in the BGCs of various antibiotics and their derivatives, have been primarily addressed in this review, which would be useful in further exploration of P450s for the biosynthesis of new therapeutics.     

原核生物细胞色素P450酶系及其应用

细胞色素P450酶系广泛分布于各种生物中,它们通常由一组基因超家族编码并含有血红素,能够催化一系列化学反应,具有多种生物学功能。特别是原核生物P450酶在催化内源性和外源性化合物的反应中具有重要的工业生产应用价值,成为近年来P450酶系研究的热点。本文对近年来原核生物P450酶系的重组表达和生物催化领域的研究进展进行综述。     

Metabolons involving plant cytochrome P450s

Arranging biological processes into “compartments” is a key feature of all eukaryotic cells. Through this mechanism, cells can drastically increase metabolic efficiency and manage complex cellular processes more efficiently, saving space and energy. Compartmentation at the molecular level is mediated by metabolons. A metabolon is an ordered protein complex of sequential metabolic enzymes and associated cellular structural elements. The sub-cellular organization of enzymes involved in the synthesis and storage of plant natural products appears to involve the anchoring of metabolons by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) to specific domains of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. This review focuses on the current evidence supporting the organization of metabolons around P450s on the surface of the ER. We␣outline direct and indirect experimental data that describes P450 enzymes in the phenylpropanoid, flavonoid, cyanogenic glucoside, and other biosynthetic pathways. We also discuss the limitations and future directions of metabolon research and the potential for application to metabolic engineering endeavors.     

Coexpression in yeast of Taxus cytochrome P450 reductase with cytochrome P450 oxygenases involved in Taxol biosynthesis

To maximize redox coupling efficiency with recombinant cytochrome P450 hydroxylases from yew (Taxus) species installed in yeast for the production of the anticancer drug Taxol, a cDNA encoding NADPH:cytochrome P450 reductase from T. cuspidata was isolated. This single-copy gene (2,154 bp encoding a protein of 717 amino acids) resembles more closely other reductases from gymnosperms (approximately 90% similarity) than those from angiosperms (<80% similarity). The recombinant reductase was characterized and compared to other reductases by heterologous expression in insect cells and was shown to support reconstituted taxoid 10beta-hydroxylase activity with an efficiency comparable to that of other plant-derived reductases. Coexpression in yeast of the reductase along with T. cuspidata taxoid 10beta-hydroxylase, which catalyzes an early step of taxoid biosynthesis, demonstrated significant enhancement of hydroxylase activity compared to that supported by the endogenous yeast reductase alone. Functional transgenic coupling of the Taxus reductase with a homologous cytochrome P450 taxoid hydroxylase represents an important initial step in reconstructing Taxol biosynthesis in a microbial host.     

A novel cytochrome P450 mono‐oxygenase from Streptomyces platensis resembles activities of human drug metabolizing P450s

Cytochrome P450 mono‐oxygenases (P450) are versatile enzymes which play essential roles in C‐source assimilation, secondary metabolism, and in degradations of endo‐ and exogenous xenobiotics. In humans, several P450 isoforms constitute the largest part of phase I metabolizing enzymes and catalyze oxidation reactions which convert lipophilic xenobiotics, including drugs, to more water soluble species. Recombinant human P450s and microorganisms are applied in the pharmaceutical industry for the synthesis of drug metabolites for pharmacokinetics and toxicity studies. Compared to the membrane‐bound eukaryotic P450s, prokaryotic ones exhibit some advantageous features, such as high stability and generally easier heterologous expression. Here, we describe a novel P450 from Streptomyces platensis DSM 40041 classified as CYP107L that efficiently converts several commercial drugs of various size and properties. This P450 was identified by screening of actinobacterial strains for amodiaquine and ritonavir metabolizing activities, followed by genome sequencing and expression of the annotated S. platensis P450s in Escherichia coli. Performance of CYP107L in biotransformations of amodiaquine, ritonavir, amitriptyline, and thioridazine resembles activities of the main human metabolizing P450s, namely CYPs 3A4, 2C8, 2C19, and 2D6. For application in the pharmaceutical industry, an E. coli whole‐cell biocatalyst expressing CYP107L was developed and evaluated for preparative amodiaquine metabolite production.     

细胞色素P450在植物与昆虫相互关系中的作用

细胞色素P4 5 0在植物与昆虫相互关系中发挥重要的作用 ,植物可以利用P4 5 0来合成有毒物质以防御昆虫的取食 ,而昆虫则利用P4 5 0对植物毒素进行代谢解毒 ,昆虫以植物代谢中间物为原料合成自身活性物质的过程也有P4 5 0的参与。通过长期的协同进化 ,植物与昆虫的相互作用不仅表现在P4 5 0底物特异性方面 ,也反映在P4 5 0的表达调控上。     

Rearrangement reactions catalyzed by cytochrome P450s

Cytochrome P450s promote a variety of rearrangement reactions both as a consequence of the nature of the radical and other intermediates generated during catalysis, and of the neighboring structures in the substrate that can interact either with the initial radical intermediates or with further downstream products of the reactions. This article will review several kinds of previously published cytochrome P450-catalyzed rearrangement reactions, including changes in stereochemistry, radical clock reactions, allylic rearrangements, “NIH” and related shifts, ring contractions and expansions, and cyclizations that result from neighboring group interactions. Although most of these reactions can be carried out by many members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily, some have only been observed with select P450s, including some reactions that are catalyzed by specific endoperoxidases and cytochrome P450s found in plants.     

Recombinant human cytochrome P450 monooxygenases for drug metabolite synthesis

Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) are important enzymes in the metabolism of xenobiotics. Therefore, several approaches to clone and overexpress the human isoforms have been made. In addition to microsomes or S9 preparations, these recombinant human isoforms have found diverse application in drug development. We discuss and give examples of the use of bacterial whole cell systems with rec. human CYPs for the preparative scale synthesis of drug metabolites. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010;106: 699–706. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Adrenodoxin supports reactions catalyzed by microsomal steroidogenic cytochrome P450s

The interaction of adrenodoxin (Adx) and NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) with human microsomal steroidogenic cytochrome P450s was studied. It is found that Adx, mitochondrial electron transfer protein, is able to support reactions catalyzed by human microsomal P450s: full length CYP17, truncated CYP17, and truncated CYP21. CPR, but not Adx, supports activity of truncated CYP19. Truncated and the full length CYP17s show distinct preference for electron donor proteins. Truncated CYP17 has higher activity with Adx compared to CPR. The alteration in preference to electron donor does not change product profile for truncated enzymes. The electrostatic contacts play a major role in the interaction of truncated CYP17 with either CPR or Adx. Similarly electrostatic contacts are predominant in the interaction of full length CYP17 with Adx. We speculate that Adx might serve as an alternative electron donor for CYP17 at the conditions of CPR deficiency in human.     

A simple and rapid method to measure cholesterol binding to P450s and other proteins

Cholesterol plays an important role in cellular function and membrane compartmentalization and is involved in the interaction with more than a dozen of different proteins. Using three cholesterol-metabolizing cytochrome P450s (P450s 7A1, 46A1, and 11A1), we have developed a rapid and simple assay for measurements of nanomolar to micromolar cholesterol affinities. In this assay, the P450 is incubated with a fixed amount of radiolabeled cholesterol and varying concentrations of cold cholesterol followed by separation of free and protein-bound cholesterol via filtration through a membrane. Free cholesterol is found in the flow-through fraction, whereas P450 binds to the membrane. The radioactivity of the membranes is then measured, and a saturation curve is generated after correction for nonspecific binding of cholesterol to the filter. The validity of the filter assay was confirmed by spectral assay, a traditional method to evaluate the interaction of the P450 enzymes with their substrates. Two types of membranes, one binding positively charged proteins and another binding negatively charged proteins, were identified. These membranes were also found to hold proteins through hydrophobic interactions. Thus, the cholesterol binding properties of a wide variety of proteins could be characterized using this filter assay.     

Homology modeling of plant cytochrome P450s

Plant P450 monooxygenases represent the largest family of plant proteins and the largest collection of P450s available for comparative studies and biotechnological applications. They have been shown to catalyze a diverse array of difficult chemical reactions and have demonstrated potential to be used in pharmacological, agronomic and phytoremediative applications. Central to our use of these catalytically competent enzymes is the need to understand their interactions with substrates. Because most characterized plant P450s are membrane-bound proteins that are resistant to standard X-ray and NMR structure determinations, homology modeling represents a reliable and relatively rapid alternative method for analyzing structure-function relationships and predicting substrates for many P450s that are only now being characterized. These methods, which are being widely used in mammalian P450 structure-function studies, can allow plant biologists to define critical residues interacting with substrates and, in a directed fashion, alter the reactivities of individual monooxygenases. The homology modelings that have been done on a limited number of plant P450s and the site-directed mutations that validate them indicate that current modeling and substrate docking procedures are capable of providing structural explanations for sequence variants as well as for predicting functional characteristics of undefined P450s.