自体肌皮瓣植入治疗慢性结核性难治性脓胸(附12例报告)

目的 总结自体肌皮瓣植入治疗慢性结核性难治性脓胸的经验。方法 2004年1月至2017年12月共有12例患者因慢性结核性难治性脓胸于上海市肺科医院行自体肌皮瓣植入治疗。伤口换药清洁后,既往有同侧手术史者,行肌皮瓣移植填充手术;既往无同侧手术史者,行肌皮瓣移位填充手术。术前行三联(异烟肼、利福平、吡嗪酰胺)常规标准化抗结核药物治疗3个月以上,术后维持抗结核药物治疗12个月。耐药结核病依据药物敏感性试验(简称“药敏试验”)结果进行调整。患者均为男性;中位年龄52.5岁(26.0~65.0岁)。7例因肺结核病变既往行肺切除术(2例全肺切除);5例开窗时存在支气管胸膜瘘(BPF),引流等保守治疗无法治愈,再行胸壁开窗,并进行长期换药。其余5例无既往手术史,因慢性结核性难治性脓胸保守治疗(引流等)无法治愈,肺无法复张,进行开窗换药。结果 全组患者无死亡,术后均未发生呼吸道并发症。5d内顺利拔除胸腔引流管,术后3~6周出院。中位随访时间9个月,11例患者无脓胸复发和肌皮瓣坏死,1例患者脓胸局部复发(取出老式封堵器,开窗换药后于非水肿期采用新型谢氏封堵器置入,准备二次肌皮瓣填入)。结论 将特种材料(记忆合金支架)、显微外科技术、抗结核药物治疗、结核性脓胸传统手术相结合,运用自体肌皮肌瓣植入治疗慢性结核性难治性脓胸具有良好的临床效果。     

Late complications of collapse therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Collapse therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis involved placement of various materials to occupy space and keep the lung collapsed. Complications are encountered decades later. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between 1980 and 1997, we treated 31 patients with a history of pulmonary tuberculosis in whom collapse therapy had been used and who later developed complications related to their treatment. Pyogenic empyema was present in 24 patients, pleural calcifications with bronchopleural fistula was present in 3 patients, pleural calcification with nonresolvable pneumothorax was present in 1 patient, and migration of a foreign body with formation of subcutaneous mass occurred in 3 patients. All patients with empyema were treated with antibiotics and tube drainage of pus. In addition, Lucite balls were extracted in 4 patients, lung decortication was performed in 6 patients, thoracoplasty was performed in 2 patients, and fenestration was performed in 16 patients. Bronchopleural fistulas were closed with sutures and reinforced with intercostal muscle flap in three patients; in one patient with pleural calcification and nonresolvable pneumothorax, tube drainage was attempted. In three patients with subcutaneous mass due to paraffin migration, paraffin was extracted. RESULTS: Pulmonary decortication (six patients) and thoracoplasty (two patients) resulted in elimination of empyema. Extraction of Lucite balls resulted in lung expansion and elimination of empyema in three of four patients; draining sinus remains in one patient. Fenestration resulted in elimination of empyema in 12 of 16 patients, with 3 patients with residual draining sinuses and 1 patient with remaining empyema. All bronchopleural fistulas closed with intercostal muscle flap remained closed. Following extraction of paraffin blocks, infection developed in one patient. During the follow-up period, three patients died, all of unrelated causes. CONCLUSIONS: Delayed complications of collapse therapy for tuberculosis should be treated without delay. Pressure on adjacent structures or their erosion presents danger and mandates immediate extraction; however, there is no need for routine removal of every residual plombe. Further increase in the number of multiple-drug resistant strains may force the return of collapse therapy.     

Role of surgical treatment in thoracic empyema with bronchopleural and/or thoracic empyema]

Sixty-nine patients with thoracic empyema treated surgically were experienced from May, 1978 through December, 1990. Thirty-nine cases had bronchopleural and/or thoracic fistula. Thirty-two patients were associated with pulmonary tuberculosis, of whom fourteen had tuberculous empyema and eighteen were sequelae of pulmonary tuberculosis or tuberculous pleurisy. The remainder were postoperative, postpneumonic, and posttraumatic empyemas. Of fourteen patients who developed postoperative bronchopleural fistula, there were ten patients who had lobectomy or pneumonectomy for lung cancers. Omental pedicle flap method, in which empyema space was filled with the omentum and pedicled muscle flap, was performed on 19 patients with bronchopleural or thoracic fistula or both. Fifteen patients were cured successfully by single-stage procedure, though there was one operative death due to aspiration pneumonia, and two recurrences which were treated by muscle plombages. There was another patient who had multiple surgical procedures in the past resulting in partial recurrences, but the fistula of this patient subsequently closed without reoperation. Postoperative decrease of %VC, FEV1.0/PVC were minimal. Treatment of long standing bronchopleural fistula is a difficult problem, and our omental pedicle flap method is relatively simple and safe which can be most suitably applied to those patients in whom other procedures have failed and to those with poor pulmonary functions.     

Clinical characteristics and outcomes of empyema thoracis in 117 patients: a comparative analysis of tuberculous vs. non-tuberculous aetiologies

BACKGROUND: Empyema thoracis remains a major problem in developing countries. Clinical outcomes in tuberculous empyema are generally believed to be worse than in non-tuberculous aetiologies because of the presence of concomitant fibrocavitary parenchymal disease, frequent bronchopleural fistulae and poor general condition of patients. We performed a prospective study over a 2-year period with the objective of comparing the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with tuberculous vs. non-tuberculous empyema. METHODS: Prospective study of all cases of non-surgical thoracic empyema seen at a tertiary care centre in North India over a 2-year period. A comparative analysis of clinical characteristics, treatment modalities and outcomes of patients with tuberculous vs. non-tuberculous empyema was carried out. Factors associated with poor outcomes were analysed using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: One hundred and seventeen cases of empyema were seen in the study period of which 95 had non-tuberculous and 41 had tuberculous empyema. Malnutrition and bronchopleural fistulae (BPF) were more common and duration of symptoms longer in the tuberculous empyema group. Time to resolution of fever, duration of pleural drainage and pleural thickening >2 cm were significantly greater as well. Eight (10.5%) patients with non-tuberculous empyema and four (9.8%) with tuberculous empyema succumbed. Presence of a BPF was significantly associated with poor outcomes on multivariate logistic regression analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Tuberculous empyema remains a common cause of thoracic empyema in India though it ranked second amongst all causes of empyema after community acquired lung infections in this study. Tuberculous empyema is associated with longer duration of symptoms, greater duration of pleural drainage and more residual pleural fibrosis.     

The management of pleural space infections

Pleural infection is responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide, and its clinical management is challenging. The diagnosis of empyema and tuberculous pleurisy may be difficult, and these conditions may be confused with other causes of exudative pleural effusions. Complicated parapneumonic effusion or empyema may present with 'atypical' clinical features; delays in diagnosis are common and may contribute to the high mortality of these infections. Pleural aspiration is the key diagnostic step; pleural fluid that is purulent or that has a pH < 7.2, or organisms on Gram stain or culture, is an indication for formal intercostal drainage. In order to achieve a definitive diagnosis of tuberculous pleurisy, Mycobacterium tuberculosis must be isolated in the culture of pleural fluid, pleural tissue or sputum; demonstration of granulomas in pleural tissue is also suggestive of tuberculosis. The use of pleural fluid biochemical markers, such as adenosine deaminase, in the diagnosis of tuberculous pleurisy varies among clinicians; the diagnostic value of such markers is affected by the background prevalence of tuberculosis and the likelihood of an alternative diagnosis. Uncertainties also remain regarding the treatment of pleural infection. Treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusion and empyema involves prolonged courses of antibiotics and attention to the patient's nutritional state. The role of intrapleural fibrinolytics and the optimal timing of surgical intervention are unknown. The lack of clear predictors of clinical outcome in empyema contributes to the difficulty in treating this condition. The pharmacological treatment of tuberculous pleurisy is the same as for pulmonary tuberculosis; the precise role of steroids in the treatment of tuberculous pleurisy remains uncertain.     

胸膜纤维板剥脱术治疗慢性结核性脓胸手术时机的选择

目的探讨胸膜纤维板剥脱术治疗慢性结核性脓胸的最佳手术时机。方法分析2000年至2008年我院采用胸膜纤维板剥脱术治疗不同疾病阶段74例慢性结核性脓胸患者的疗效。结果病史在6周至3个月以内的慢性结核性脓胸患者在手术时间,术中出血量,胸膜纤维板厚度,术后引流量的4方面对比均优于病史大于3个月的慢性结核性脓胸患者。结论胸膜纤维板剥脱术是治疗慢性结核性脓胸的有效方法。病史在6周至3个月以内为患者最佳手术时机,对于诊断未明确、抗痨治疗效果差者,尤其是青少年患者可考虑早期行胸膜纤维板剥脱术。     

Tuberculous empyema

Tuberculous empyema represents a chronic, active infection of the pleural space that contains a large number of tubercle bacilli. It is rare compared with tuberculous pleural effusions that result from an exaggerated inflammatory response to a localized paucibacillary pleural infection with tuberculosis. The inflammatory process may be present for years with a paucity of clinical symptoms. Patients often come to clinical attention at the time of a routine chest radiograph or after the development of bronchopleural fistula or empyema necessitatis. The diagnosis of tuberculous empyema is suspected on computed tomography imaging by finding a thick, calcific pleural rind and rib thickening surrounding loculated pleural fluid. The pleural fluid is grossly purulent and smear positive for acid-fast bacilli. Treatment consists of pleural space drainage and antituberculous chemotherapy. Problematic treatment issues include the inability to re-expand the trapped lung and difficulty in achieving therapeutic drug levels in pleural fluid, which can lead to drug resistance. Surgery, which is often challenging, should be undertaken by experienced thoracic surgeons.     

Pleurocutaneous flap: how useful it is in management of chronic empyema

BACKGROUND: Definitive surgical treatment of chronic empyema is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Methods. Retrospective study of 50 patients with chronic empyema who underwent pleurocutaneous flap procedure during the period 1994 to 2003. RESULTS: Their age ranged from 14 to 70 years; there were 32 males. Thirty-seven (74%) patients were on intercostal tube drainage; nine (18%) presented with bronchopleural fistula; and four (8%) had past-pneumonectomy empyema. Following pleurocutaneous flap procedure, 28 (56%) responded with re-expansion of the lung; 15 (30%) had persistence of pus discharge and air-leak suggestive of bronchopleural fistula. Definitive surgery could be undertaken in nine of the 15 patients. CONCLUSIONS: Pleurocutaneous flap procedure renders the patient ambulatory, facilitates re-expansion of the lung and helps as a tide-over procedure before definitive surgery in patients with chronic empyema.     

胸膜纤维板剥脱术治疗慢性结核性脓胸分析

目的：分析胸膜纤维板剥脱术治疗20例慢性结核性脓胸及合并症。方法：所有病例均行胸膜纤维板剥脱术，同时行2例干酪病灶清除，4例空洞清除,2例支气管胸膜瘘修补和1例T12L1椎体结核病灶清除术。结果：脓腔全部灭，空洞清除，瘘口闭合，肺内结核病灶稳定,肺功能明显改善。结论：胸膜纤维板剥脱术是治疗慢性结核性脓胸较理想的手术方法，可以扩大手术适应证。     

Stage-by-stage pneumonectomy in pleural empyema]

Staged pneumonectomy tactics in complication of the main lung affection by pleural empyema was described. Surgery was based on an open treatment of empyema cavity before and after the principal surgical stage--pneumonectomy, which was completed by closed treatment using the method of early pleural cavity filling with curative solutions. Use of staged surgical treatment tactics makes it possible to prevent serious postoperative complications such as empyema recurrence and bronchial fistulas. Full clinical effect was achieved in 11 of the 56 operations of staged pneumonectomy in the presence of empyema.     

Surgical management of pleural space infections

Adequate drainage of pleural space infections is generally required to achieve resolution of the infection and full expansion of the underlying lung. An understanding of the normal pathologic evolution of pleural infection is necessary to choose the optimal method of pleural drainage. The timing of surgical drainage and the choice of drainage procedure in each case should be based upon the duration of the infection, the characteristics of the pleural fluid, the presence of loculations within the pleural space, and the overall condition of the patient. Thoracentesis should be performed to confirm a suspected diagnosis of pleural empyema. The diagnostic information from thoracentesis may be augmented by imaging techniques such as computed tomography, ultrasound, or empyemagrams. Such radiographic studies are important in the planning of either closed or open drainage. Repeated thoracentesis are rarely adequate for drainage of an established empyema. Closed tube thoracostomy requires careful placement and is very effective if instituted in the early stage of pleural infection. Open drainage with rib resection for chest tube placement is probably the most versatile form of pleural drainage. Decortication is promptly curative and should be employed in the latter stages of empyema in patients who can tolerate the procedure. Chronic open flap drainage is reserved for debilitated patients or patients with destroyed underlying lung.     

流程优化完全电视胸腔镜手术治疗慢性结核性脓胸(附59例报告)

目的 探讨流程优化完全电视胸腔镜手术治疗慢性结核性脓胸的可行性。方法 收集2015年4月至2017年8月在朝阳市第四医院施行电视胸腔镜手术的59例慢性结核性脓胸患者,对本组患者行慢性结核性脓胸清除及纤维板剥脱术的临床资料进行分析,对临床疗效进行评价,并重点阐述了“流程优化”手术方法及效果。流程优化手术方法是笔者通过自身临床实践,为克服电视胸腔镜手术治疗慢性结核性脓胸的诸多技术难点而设计的新的手术方法。主要包括改变胸腔镜手术切口布局顺序,改进胸腔镜操作空间建立技术,统一纤维板剥脱顺序流程,独特的胸腔引流管放置方法等流程优化方法。结果 59例患者均顺利完成电视胸腔镜手术。手术持续时间60~180min,平均[中位数(四分位数),M(Q₁,Q₃)]110(90,140)min;术中出血150~2000ml,平均[M(Q₁,Q₃)]700(550,800)ml;引流管留置时间4~22d,平均[M(Q₁,Q₃)]7(5,10)d;术后住院时间6~24d,平均[M(Q₁,Q₃)] 9(7,12)d。术后并发症发生率为23.3%(14/60):包括切口延期愈合5例、肺持续漏气5例、乳糜胸1例;3例切口再次感染形成慢性窦道,经正确处理切口均得到愈合。术后随访3~36个月,平均随访[M(Q₁,Q₃)]16(8,22)个月,患者均无脓胸复发。结论 采用流程优化完全电视胸腔镜手术方法治疗慢性结核性脓胸效果良好,安全可靠。     

Pneumonectomy for destroyed lung or chronic tuberculous empyema]

Fourteen patients underwent pneumonectomy for destroyed lung or tuberculous empyema at the Shimada Municipal Hospital from September 1980 to December 1985. Mean age was 61 and ten patients were males. Cough and sputum (in 12 cases) and hemosputum or hemoptysis (in 8 cases) were common complaints. Three patients had complications in the immediate postoperative period: hemorrhagic shock, pulmonary embolism and contralateral pneumothorax. They were treated conservatively. The postoperative course was uneventful in the other patients and all complaints were reduced or disappeared. And lung function improved in 3 cases with chronic empyema compressing the mediastinum. In conclusion, pneumonectomy is one of the radical operation for destroyed lung or chronic tuberculous empyema with low pulmonary function and complaints. And the critical level are 40% of %VC and 25% of FEV1.0/pr. %VC in preoperative pulmonary function.     

Completion pneumonectomy: indications, complications, and results

Completion pneumonectomy is reported to be associated with high morbidity and mortality, especially when performed in patients with benign diseases. In our study we aimed to evaluate all patients underwent completion pneumonectomy in our clinic and to compare indications, complications and postoperative results with the literatures. Between January 1987 and December 2001, 27 consecutive patients who underwent completion pneumonectomy in our clinic were retrospectively reviewed. Postoperative morbidity and mortality rates were calculated according to indications and the results were compared to the standard pneumonectomies. There were 27 patients, 13 (48.1%) women and 14 (51.9%) men, with a median age of 26 (range, 10 to 62 years). Completion pneumonectomy was performed for benign diseases in 23 (85.2%) patients and for malign diseases in 4 (14.8%). Malign indications included 2 second primary tumors and 2 local recurrences. In the group with benign diseases; completion pneumonectomy was performed for tuberculosis in 5, bronchiectasis in 14, bronchopleural fistula in 2 and necrosis of lung in 2. Hospital mortality was 7.4% including 1 intraoperative and 1 postoperative deaths and both of them had undergone completion pneumonectomy for benign diseases. Complications occurred in 9 (33.3 %) patients, bronchopleural fistula + empyema were seen in 6 patients, cardiac rhythm disorders in 2 and wound infection in 1. All complications occurred in the patients operated for benign indications (39.1%). Completion pneumonectomy can be performed with an acceptable morbidity and mortality (similar to standard pneumonectomy) in selected cases. But the complication risk is higher in benign diseases, especially in tuberculosis. Surgical technique is important to avoid serious complications such as bronchopleural fistula and empyema.     

112例结核性脓胸的外科治疗分析

目的 探讨结核性脓胸的外科治疗效果和手术适应症。 方法 总结北京胸科医院1999年1月-2008年底手术切除的112例结核性脓胸的临床疗效。全组包括：结核性全脓胸49例、肺结核合并结核性全脓胸1例、结核性包裹性脓胸53例、肺结核合并结核性包裹性脓胸3例、结核性脓胸合并支气管胸膜瘘6例。 结果胸膜纤维板剥脱术67例、胸膜全肺切除术10例、胸膜肺叶切除术4例、胸膜肺部分切除术6例、胸膜纤维板剥脱+胸廓成形术18例,其他手术7例。总治愈率95.0%,手术并发症率12.5%,死亡率0.9%。 结论 患者一旦发展成慢性结核性脓胸应及早外科治疗,手术是治疗慢性结核性脓胸的唯一有效方法 。     

So-called "open healing" of chronic calcified pleural empyema--a study on the etiological and clinical problems]

Surgery performed on a 70 year-old male revealed a case of chronic calcified pleural empyema open healing that was induced through an effective bronchiolar drainage mechanism. The patient had previously received anti-tuberculosis medication, including INH and RFP, 7 years prior for positive sputum cultures and symptoms of fistulation observed in an x-ray finding of right lung pleural calcification. The four cardinal signs of chronic calcified pleural empyema open healing are as follows: 1. Failure to isolate tubercle bacilli, 2. Inability to locate necrotic coagulation or specific inflammatory granulation tissue on the cavitary wall, 3. Calcified pleural plaque detached from the cavitary wall, and 4. Microscopic recognition of many drainage bronchiolar openings to the empyema and the inner surface of the empyema covered with stratified squamous epithelium, which possibly penetrated via the entering bronchioles.     

Pulmonary tuberculosis accompanied by a transient increase in serum carcinoembryonic antigen level with tuberculous empyema drainage

We present a case of pleural effusion with encapsulation that was observed in the right thorax of a patient. PCR analysis of the patient's pleural effusion showed positivity for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. After six months, his chest CT showed the development of niveau and pulmonary consolidation. We definitively diagnosed him as having chronic pulmonary tuberculosis with tuberculous empyema drainage. At the time of his hospital admission, his serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) level was elevated. After we started treatment using antituberculosis drugs, the infiltration shadow in his lung fields disappeared, and the serum CEA level decreased. The results suggest that the serum CEA level reflects the extent of the development of pulmonary tuberculosis lesions.     

Pedicled Latissimus Dorsi Muscle Flap: Routine Use in High-Risk Thoracic Surgery

Bronchopleural fistula and empyema are serious complications after thoracic surgical procedures, and their prevention is paramount. Herein, we review our experience with routine prophylactic use of the pedicled ipsilateral latissimus dorsi muscle flap. From January 2004 through February 2006, 10 surgically high-risk patients underwent intrathoracic transposition of this muscle flap for reinforcement of bronchial-stump closure or obliteration of empyema cavities. Seven of the patients were chronically immunosuppressed, 5 were severely malnourished (median preoperative serum albumin level, 2.4 g/dL), and 5 had severe underlying obstructive pulmonary disease (median forced expiratory volume in 1 second, 44% of predicted level). Three upper lobectomies and 1 completion pneumonectomy were performed in order to treat massive hemoptysis that was secondary to complex aspergilloma. One patient underwent left pneumonectomy due to ruptured-cavitary primary lung lymphoma. One upper lobectomy was performed because of necrotizing, localized Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection. One patient underwent right upper lobectomy and main-stem bronchoplasty for carcinoma after chemoradiation therapy. In 3 patients, the pedicled latissimus dorsi muscle was used to obliterate chronic empyema cavities and to buttress the closure of underlying bronchopleural fistulas. No operative deaths or recurrent empyemas resulted. Two patients retained peri-flap air that required no surgical intervention.We conclude that the use of transposed pedicled latissimus dorsi muscle flap effectively and reliably prevents clinically overt bronchopleural fistula and recurrent empyema. We advocate its routine use in first-time and selected reoperative thoracotomies in patients who are undergoing high-risk lung resection or reparative procedures.Key words: Bronchial fistula/prevention & control/surgery, empyema, pleural/etiology/prevention & control/surgery, muscle, skeletal/surgery/transplantation, pleural diseases/prevention & control/surgery, pneumonectomy/adverse effects, postoperative complications, reconstructive surgical procedures, risk factors, surgical flaps/methods, thoracic surgical procedures/methods, treatment outcomeBronchopleural fistula (BPF) and empyema are rare but dangerous complications of pulmonary resections. The incidence of postoperative BPF, reported as 1.5% to 28%,^1–4 has been shown in general to relate to the condition''s cause and to the surgical technique and experience of the surgeons.^5–7 The incidence of empyema after pulmonary resections is between 2% and 16%.^8–10 Anatomic lung resections (for example, lobectomy and pneumonectomy) that are performed to treat inflammatory and infectious conditions particularly invite the development of these postoperative complications.Given the high morbidity and mortality rates of postoperative BPF and recurrent empyema, prevention is paramount. The use of transposed extrathoracic muscle flaps to cover bronchial stumps and to eliminate dead space is a well-established management technique.We have routinely used the pedicled latissimus dorsi (PLD) muscle flap as our preferred flap in high-risk thoracic surgery patients who have undergone lobectomy, pneumonectomy, or decortication procedures. Here, we review our experience with this technique in 10 patients, and the clinical outcomes thereof.     

Tuberculous pleural empyema: surgical aspects

The outcomes of surgical treatment in 323 patients aged 18 to 87 years who had chronic tuberculous empyema are analyzed. The duration of the disease ranged from 4 to 54 years. The clinical picture was mild with few symptoms and a stable phase to severe with signs of pyoresorptive fever in an acute phase. A programme has been developed to treat patients with tuberculous empyema, which is based on a combination of total specific chemotherapy, local action on a tuberculous process, and final surgical intervention. The basic surgical interventions were pleurectomy and decortication of the lung in 124 (38.8%) patients; pleurectomy with decortication and resection of the lung in 31 (9.6%); pleurectomy, decortication with resection of the lung in 11 (3.4%). Forty three (13.3%) patients underwent plastic surgery with thoracoplasty and pleuropulmonectomy and 110 (34%) patients had palliative interventions as closed drainage. Postoperative complications occurred in 12.6% of patients. One patient died from progressive tuberculosis.     

Successful nonsurgical treatment of tuberculous empyema in an irreducible pleural space

A 78-year-old woman with empyema due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a chronic pleural space was successfully treated with a 24-month course of oral isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and serial space-emptying thoracocenteses. Besides dramatic clinical improvement, follow-up pleural fluid analyses demonstrated gradual replacement of the empyema with a sterile pleural exudate, which has persisted 24 months after cessation of therapy. This case demonstrates a therapeutic program that was an effective alternative to decortication or thoracoplasty for tuberculous empyema in an irreducible pleural space.