On the electrical conductivity of air inside buildings

Summary Simultaneous measurements of the electrical conductivity of air inside and outside of buildings have been performed with continuously recording electronic instruments of high sensitivity and short time constant. It appears that the electrical conductivity, a measure of the natural ionization of air, is one atmospheric-electric parameter that can manifest itself inside occupied buildings without appreciable difference in physical character from outside values.The probable importance of these experimental results for the field of bioclimatology is pointed out and the possibility is discussed that the electrical conductivity of air might be one of the searched—for parameters in associating physiological phenomena with weather changes.

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Zusammenfassung Gleichzeitige Messungen der luftelektrischen Leitfähigkeit im Freien und innerhalb von Gebäuden wurden mit kontinuierlich registrierenden Röhreninstrumenten von großer Empfindlichkeit und kurzer Zeitkonstante durchgeführt. Es wurde gefunden, daß die Leitfähigkeit als Maß der natürlichen Luftionisierung eine luftelektrische Größe darstellt, die ohne wesentliche physikalische Beeinflussung in bewohnte Gebäude einzudringen vermag.Die mögliche Bedeutung dieser experimentellen Ergebnisse für das Gebiet der Bioklimatologie wird angedeutet und die Wahrscheinlichkeit diskutiert, daß die luftelektrische Leitfähigkeit einen der noch unbestimmten Faktoren des Zusammenhanges physiologischer Erscheinungen mit Wetterveränderungen darstellen könnte.

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Résumé Des instruments électroniques à enregistrement continu de haute fidelité et ayant une constante de courte durée ont permis de prendre des mesures simultanées de la conductivité électrique de l'air à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur de bâtiments. Il semble que la conductivité électrique, mesure de l'ionisation naturelle de l'air, soit un paramètre de l'électricité atmosphérique qui peut se manifester à l'intérieur de bâtiments habités sans différence appréciable de caractéristiques physiques avec celles des valeurs extérieures.L'importance probable de ces résultats expérimentaux dans le champ de la bioclimatologie est indiquée, et la possibilité que la conductivité atmosphérique puisse être un des paramètres recherchés dans l'association des phénomènes physiologiques avec des changements du temps est étudiée.

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Publication No. 25 of the Institute of Geophysics, University of California at Los Angeles. The research reported in this paper has been sponsored in part by the Geophysics Research Directorate of the Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research and Development Command, under Contract No. AF 19(122)-254.     

Rate constants for the reactions of the NO3 radical with HCOOH/HCOO− and CH3COOH/CH3COO− in aqueous solution between 278 and 328 K

The kinetics of the aqueous phase reactions of NO₃ radicals with HCOOH/HCOO^– and CH₃COOH/CH₃COO^– have been investigated using a laser photolysis/long-path laser absorption technique. NO₃ was produced via excimer laser photolysis of peroxodisulfate anions (S₂O ₈ ^2– ) at 351 nm followed by the reactions of sulfate radicals (SO ₄ ^– ) with excess nitrate. The time-resolved detection of NO₃ was achieved by long-path laser absorption at 632.8 nm. For the reactions of NO₃ with formic acid (1) and formate (2) rate coefficients ofk ₁=(3.3±1.0)×10⁵ l mol^–1 s^–1 andk ₂=(5.0±0.4)×10⁷ l mol^–1 s^–1 were found atT=298 K andI=0.19 mol/l. The following Arrhenius expressions were derived:k ₁(T)=(3.4±0.3)×10¹⁰ exp[–(3400±600)/T] l mol^–1 s^–1 andk ₂(T)=(8.2±0.8)×10¹⁰ exp[–(2200±700)/T] l mol^–1 s^–1. The rate coefficients for the reactions of NO₃ with acetic acid (3) and acetate (4) atT=298 K andI=0.19 mol/l were determined as:k ₃=(1.3±0.3)×10⁴ l mol^–1 s^–1 andk ₄=(2.3±0.4)×10⁶ l mol^–1 s^–1. The temperature dependences for these reactions are described by:k ₃(T)=(4.9±0.5)×10⁹ exp[–(3800±700)/T] l mol^–1 s^–1 andk ₄(T)=(1.0±0.2)×10¹² exp[–(3800±1200)/T] l mol^–1 s^–1. The differences in reactivity of the anions HCOO^– and CH₃COO^– compared to their corresponding acids HCOOH and CH₃COOH are explained by the higher reactivity of NO₃ in charge transfer processes compared to H atom abstraction. From a comparison of NO₃ reactions with various droplets constituents it is concluded that the reaction of NO₃ with HCOO^– may present a dominant loss reaction of NO₃ in atmospheric droplets.     

General Characteristics of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over a Flaw Lead Polynya Region in Winter and Spring

A time series of microwave radiometric profiles over Arctic Canada’s Cape Bathurst (70°N, 124.5°W) flaw lead polynya region from 1 January to 30 June, 2008 was examined to determine the general characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer in winter and spring. A surface based or elevated inversion was present on 97% of winter (January–March) days, and on 77% of spring (April–June) days. The inversion was the deepest in the first week of March (≈1100 m), and the shallowest in June (≈250 m). The mean temperature and absolute humidity from the surface to the top of the inversion averaged 250.1 K (−23.1°C), and 0.56 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻³ in winter, and in spring averaged 267.5 K (−5.6°C), and 2.77 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻³. The median winter atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) potential temperature profile provided evidence of a shallow, weakly stable internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) topped by an inversion (350–1,000 m). The median spring profile showed a shallow, near-neutral internal boundary layer (surface to 350 m) under an elevated inversion (600–800 m). The median ABL absolute humidity profiles were weakly positive in winter and negative in spring. Estimates of the convergence of sensible heat and water vapour from the surface that could have produced the turbulent internal boundary layers of the median profiles were 0.67 MJ m⁻² and 13.1 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻² for the winter season, and 0.66 MJ m⁻² and 33.4 × 10⁻³ kg m⁻² for the spring season. With fetches of 10–100 km, these accumulations may have resulted from a surface sensible heat flux of 15–185 W m⁻², plus a surface moisture flux of 0.001–0.013 mm h⁻¹ (or a latent heat flux of 0.7–8.8 W m⁻²) in winter, and 0.003–0.033 mm h⁻¹ (or a latent heat flux of 2–22 W m⁻²) in spring.     

Regional effects of large-scale extreme wind events over orographically structured terrain

Summary ?Above orographically structured terrain considerable differences of the regional wind field may be identified during large-scale extreme wind events. So far, these regional differences could not be resolved by climate models. To determine the relationships between large-scale atmospheric conditions, the influence of orography, and the regional wind field, data measured in the upper Rhine valley within the framework of the REKLIP Regional Climate Project were analyzed and calculations were made using the KAMM mesoscale model. In the area of the upper Rhine valley, ratios of the wind velocity in the Rhine valley at 10 m above ground level, ν_val, and the large-scale flow velocity, ν_lar, are between ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 0.1 and ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 1. The ν_val/ν_lar ratio exhibits a strong dependence on thermal stratification, δ, and decreases from ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 1 at δ = 0 K m⁻¹ to ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 0.2 at δ = 0.0075 K m⁻¹. In areas, where the lateral mountainous border of the Rhine valley is interrupted, the ν_val/ν_lar ratio increases again with increasing stability or decreasing Froude number. This is obviously due to flow around the Black Forest under stable stratification. It is demonstrated by model calculations that a complex wind field develops in the Rhine valley at small Froude numbers (Fr < 1) irrespective of the direction of large-scale flow. The ν_val/ν_lar ratio is characterized by small values in the direct lee side (ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 0.2) and high values on the windward side of the lateral mountainous border of the Rhine valley (ν_val/ν_lar ≈ 0.8). Received October 22, 2001; revised June 18, 2002; accepted June 23, 2002     

Eine statistische Theorie der Böigkeit des Windes

Zusammenfassung Es werden Gleichungen abgeleitet, mittels derer man aus dem Energiespektrum des Windes die Häufigkeit von Böen bestimmter Größe und bestimmter Mindestgröße, die Größe der häufigsten Böenspitze und einen mittleren Abstand zwischen zwei Böenstößen berechnen kann. Die Theorie wird an einem Beispiel erläutert.

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Summary Equations are derived which allow the calculation of frequencies of gusts with a velocity equal or larger than a given amount, of the velocity of the most frequent gust, and of a mean interval between two gusts out of the power-spectrum of wind. The theory is illustrated by an example.

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Résumé L'auteur établit des formules permettant de calculer les grandeurs suivantes en partant du spectre énergétique du vent: Fréquence des rafales de force ou de force maximale déterminées, force des rafales les plus fréquentes ainsi que le temps moyen séparant deux rafales. Il démontre sa théorie par un exemple.

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A condensation method particle size spectrometer

Summary A condensation method of measuring the size frequency distribution of Aitken nuclei is described. Making use of thePollak-Nolan photoelectric nucleus counter it is based on the removal of the nuclei activated at various overpressures from the counter by precipitation and the counting of those that remain. Various stored aerosols are investigated by means of it and the decay mechanisms of these aerosols discussed in the light of the results obtained. The value of the exhaustion method of finding diffusion coefficients is also examined.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird eine Kondensationsmethode zur Messung des Häufigkeitsspektrums der Größenverteilung von Aitken-Kernen beschrieben. Unter Benützung des photoelektrischen Kernzählers vonPollak undNolan beruht sie darauf, daß die aktivierten Kerne bei verschiedenen Überdrucken durch Ausfällung ausgeschieden und die übrigbleibenden ausgezählt werden. Mit dieser Methode wurden verschiedene gespeicherte Aerosole untersucht und auf Grund der Ergebnisse der Zerfallsmechanismus dieser Aerosole diskutiert; es wurde auch die Eignung der Evakuierungsmethode zur Bestimmung von Diffusionskoeffizienten untersucht.

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Résumé L'auteur décrit une méthode permettant de mesurer par condensation le spectre des fréquences de la répartition des grosseurs de noyaux d'Aitken. Cette méthode repose sur le principe suivant: On élimine les noyaux activés sous différentes pressions par sédimentations successives. Les noyaux restant sont alors dénombrés par le compteur photoélectrique de noyaux mis au point parPollak etNolan. L'auteur a étudié par cette méthode divers aérosoles conservés et il discute, sur la base des résultats obtenus, le mécanisme de désagrégation de ces aérosoles. Il a également étudié si la méthode par évacuation se prêtait à la détermination des coefficients de diffusion.

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Klimatologische Untersuchung über die geographische Verteilung der Globalstrahlung und der diffusen Himmelsstrahlung

Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende strahlungsklimatologische Studie verfolgt den Zweck, ausschließlich auf Grund von Meßergebnissen anhand ausgewählter Beispiele gegensätzlicher Großaumklimate zunächst die typischen Eigenschaften des Jahresganges der Globalstrahlung (T) und der diffusen Himmelsstrahlung (D) zu untersuchen. In Ergänzung hierzu werden häufigkeitsstatistische Betrachtungen über die Eigenheiten im Verhalten dieser Strahlungselemente im Bereich verschieden beschaffener geographischer Räume angestellt. Dabei zeigt sich, daß neben dem jahreszeitlichen Ablauf auch die Häufigkeitsverteilungen vonT undD sich zur Klimatypisierung heranziehen lassen. Ein besonderes Interesse beansprucht der jahreszeitliche Verlauf des VerhältnissesD/T in den Hauptklimazonen der Erde. Ferner wird die Breitenabhängigkeit der Globalstrahlung (T), der diffusen Himmelsstrahlung (D) und des VerhältnissesD/T behandelt. Hinsichtlich der Höhenabhängigkeit ergibt sich auf Grund des Verhaltens vonT undD für die gemäßigten Breiten eine Abnahme des QuotientenD/T. Den Abschluß bilden strahlungsklimatologische Überlegungen zur Frage der Abhängigkeit des VerhältnissesD/T von der Sonnenscheindauer im Bereich charakteristischer Klimazonen der Erde.

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Summary The present study of radiation climatology, exclusively basing on results of measurements, presents selected examples of contrary large-scale climatic conditions and examines the typical features of the annual variation of global radiation (T) and diffuse sky radiation (D). Supplementary considerations on frequency statistics refer to the peculiarities in the behaviour of these two radiation elements in different geographical areas. It results that beside the seasonal variation frequency distributions ofT andD can be used for a characterization of radiation climates. The seasonal variation of the characteristic ratioD/T in the main climatic zones of the earth is of particular interest. Furthermore, the latitudinal dependency of global radiation (T), diffuse sky radiation (D) and of the ratioD/T is discussed. As to the dependence on altitude the ratioD/T shows a decrease in temperate latitudes on account of the behaviour ofD andT. Finally climatological reflections on the dependence of the ratioD/T on the duration of sunshine in characteristic climatic regions of the earth are discussed.

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Résumé La présente étude de la climatologie du rayonnement a pour but de déterminer les propriétés typiques de l'évolution annuelle du rayonnement global (T) et du rayonnement diffus du ciel (D) et cela exclusivement sur la base de mesures faites et d'exemples choisis parmi des climats très différenciés. En complément, on prend en considération des statistiques de la fréquence des particularités de ces deux éléments à l'intérieur d'aires géographiques de climats divers. On en déduit que, à côté de l'évolution annuelle, la répartition des fréquences deT et deD permettent d'établir le type du climat. L'évolution saisonnière du rapportD/T est tout spécialement intéressant dans les principales zones climatiques de la terre. On considère ensuite la dépendance du rayonnement global (T), du rayonnement diffus du ciel (D) et du rapportD/T de la latitude du lieu. Dans les zones tempérées, le quotientD/T diminue avec l'altitude. L'auteur termine par des réflexions concernant la climatologie du rayonnement en relation avec la dépendance du rapportD/T de la durée d'insolation dans des zones climatiques caractéristiques de notre planète.

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大气气溶胶细粒子研究进展

大气细粒子PM2.5是大气气溶胶的一个组成部分,由于其粒径小,比表面积大,可以为有毒物质提供载体,所以它对环境和人体健康都有很大的影响。本文主要从PM2.5的危害、研究方法和沙尘细粒子的研究进展来阐述国内外细粒子的研究现状,并对其今后研究热点及新方向进行了展望。     

Numerical study on the bulk heat transfer coefficient for a variety of vegetation types and densities

The relationship between the geometrical structure of a canopy layer and the bulk transfer coefficient was investigated using a numerical canopy model. The following results were obtained:

1. The bulk transfer coefficients for momentum and heat, C _M and C _H , change with non-dimensional canopy density C _* each has a maximum.
2. The value of C _M is always larger than the value of C _H for a canopy with c _m > c _h , c _m and c _h being the drag coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient of an individual canopy element, respectively.
3. The value of C _* at which C _H has its maximum value is larger than the value of C _* at which C _M has its maximum. Therefore, the reciprocal of the sublayer Stanton number b _h ^?1 ranges between 50 and 65 for C _* around 0.1 while it ranges between 0 and 30 for C _* < 10^?2 and C _* > 2 (when c _m = 0.5).
4. The value of B _H ^?1 in the present study is consistent with most available observations, except for canopies of medium density (when C _* is around 0.1) for which no observational value has been obtained.

     

Processing of oxidised nitrogen compounds by passage through winter-time orographic cloud

Four case studies are described, from a three-site field experiment in October/November 1991 using the Great Dun Fell flow-through reactor hill cap cloud in rural Northern England. Measurements of total odd-nitrogen nitrogen oxides (NO _y ) made on either side of the hill, before and after the air flowed through the cloud, showed that 10 to 50% of the NO _y , called NO _z , was neither NO nor NO₂. This NO _z failed to exhibit a diurnal variation and was often higher after passage through cloud than before. No evidence of conversion of NO _z to NO₃ ^- in cloud was found. A simple box model of gas-phase chemistry in air before it reached the cloud, including scavenging of NO₃ and N₂O₅ by aerosol of surface area proportional to the NO₂ mixing ratio, shows that NO₃ and N₂O₅ may build up in the boundary layer by night only if stable stratification insulates the air from emissions of NO. This may explain the lack of evidence for N₂O₅ forming NO₃ ^- in cloud under well-mixed conditions in 1991, in contrast with observations under stably stratified conditions during previous experiments when evidence of N₂O₅ was found. Inside the cloud, some variations in the calculated total atmospheric loading of HNO₂ and the cloud liquid water content were related to each other. Also, indications of conversion of NO _x to NO _z were found. To explain these observations, scavenging of NO _x and HNO₂ by cloud droplets and/or aqueous-phase oxidation of NO₂ ^- by nitrate radicals are considered. When cloud acidity was being produced by aqueous-phase oxidation of NO _x or SO₂, NO₃ ^- which had entered the cloud as aerosol particles was liberated as HNO₃ vapour. When no aqueous-phase production of acidity was occurring, the reverse, conversion of scavenged HNO₃ to particulate NO₃ ^-, was observed.     

三江平原地区光合有效辐射观测研究

利用2005~2011年的太阳辐射观测资料分析三江平原地区光合有效辐射(Qp)的时间变化特征及其与总辐射(Rs)比值(Qp/Rs)的变化规律,结果表明,Qp与Rs具有相同的季节变化特征;Qp日累计值的变化范围为60.47~0.11 mol m-2 d-1,年均值为23.76 mol m-2 d-1。Qp/Rs的变化范围为1.52~2.07 mol MJ-1,年均值为1.91 mol MJ-1。Qp/Rs和Qp季节变化一致,两者都是夏季最大,春秋次之,冬季最小。通过利用2011年的Qp观测数据、大气质量数与晴空指数的相互关系,建立了适合于估量三江地区Qp的经验方程,估算值与观测值的相对误差在5.7%以内。     

Spectra of temperature derivatives in the atmospheric surface layer

Measured spectra ofθ _x,θ _y,θ _z, the derivatives of temperature in streamwise, lateral and vertical directions, respectively, indicate that the spectral densities ofθ _z andθ _y are nearly similar but significantly different from the spectral density ofθ _x. The high-frequency parts of the three spectra satisfy, in a qualitative sense, local isotropy requirements. In the high-frequency end of the inertial subrange, the relative behaviour of spectra ofθ _x,θ _y andθ _z is also consistent with local isotropy.     

The role of clouds in tropospheric photochemistry

We show that photochemical processes in the lower half of the troposphere are strongly affected by the presence of liquid water clouds. Especially CH₂O, an important intermediate of CH₄ (and of other hydrocarbon) oxidation, is subject to enhanced breakdown in the aqueous phase. This reduces the formation of HO _x -radicals via photodissociation of CH₂O in the gas phase. In the droplets, the hydrated form of CH₂O, its oxidation product HCO₂ ^–, and H₂O₂ recycle O₂ ^– radicals which, in turn, react with ozone. We show that the latter reaction is a significant sink for O₃. Further O₃ concentrations are reduced as a result of decreased formation of O₃ during periods with clouds. Additionally, NO _x , which acts as a catalyst in the photochemical formation of O₃, is depleted by clouds during the night via scavenging of N₂O₅. This significantly reduces NO _x -concentrations during subsequent daylight hours, so that less NO _x is available for O₃ production. Clouds thus directly reduce the concentrations of O₃, CH₂O, NO _x , and HO _x . Indirectly, this also affects the budgets of other trace gases, such as H₂O₂, CO, and H₂.     

Der Hagel im Wiener Becken

Zusammenfassung An Hand der Schadenstatistik 1952–1956 der österreichischen Hagelversicherung wurden Häufigkeitsverteilungen der Hagelschäden im Wiener Becken berechnet. Für längere Zeitabschnitte wurde die jährliche Hagelwahrscheinlichkeit in Wien als Poisson-Verteilung dargestellt. Eine Karte bringt die örtliche Verteilung der Hagelgefahr im Wiener Becken, wobei sich zwei besonders gefährdete Gebiete zeigen. Im weiteren wird gezeigt, daß Hagelfälle besonders bei den GroßwetterlagenHN, TK, TR, Vb undTB auftreten. Die südöstliche Höhenströmung in der 500 mb-Fläche wird als besonders hagelbegünstigend erkannt.Für Tage mit verbreiteter Hageltätigkeit wied eine mittlere Aufstiegskurve berechnet. Mittels des Thetagramms wird untersucht, welche Luftmassen bei besonders hagelfördernden Großwetterlagen und Höhenströmungen auftreten. Es zeigt sich, daß fast immer Tropikluft, die in den unteren Schichten überhitzt wird, an den großen Hagelfällen beteiligt ist.

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Summary On the basis of the statistics of damages of the Austrian Hail Insurance Company, 1952–1956, frequency distributions of hail-damages in the basin of Vienna were evaluated. For longer periods the annual probability of hail in Vienna was expressed by a Poisson-distribution. A map represents the local distribution of hail-risk in the basin of Vienna, showing two regions especially endangered. Further it has been shown that hail-storms occur expecially with the weather situationsHN, TK, TR, Vb andTB. The upper wind from southeast has been realized to be especially promoting for the occurrence of hail.A mean sounding was evaluated for days with wide-spread hail-activity. By means of the thetagramm it has been investigated which air-masses occur in weather situations and with upper winds which promote the falling of hail. It turns out that nearly always tropical air-masses, being superheated in layers near the ground, participate in large hail-storms.

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Résumé S'appuyant sur la statistique de dégâts 1952/56 de l'assurance autrichienne contre la grêle, l'auteur a calculé la distribution de fréquence de ces dégâts dans le bassin viennois. La probabilité de grêle à Vienne pour de longues périodes s'exprime par une distribution de Poisson. Une carte représente la répartition géographique du danger de grêle dans le bassin viennois; elle met en évidence deux régions particulièrement menacées. Les chutes de grêle se produisent plus fréquemment lors des situations météorologiquesHN, TK, TR, Vb etTB; le courant de Sud-Est au niveau de la surface de 500 mb apparaît comme particulièrement favorable à la grêle.On établit une courbe d'état aérologique moyenne pour les jours à chutes de grêle étendues. L'étude des thétagrammes permet de préciser quelles sont les masses d'air présentes lors des conditions favorables à la grêle; on constate que c'est presque toujours l'air tropical surchauffé dans les couches basses.

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Measurement and investigation of chamber radical sources in the European Photoreactor (EUPHORE)

It is essential to quantify the background reactivity of smog-chambers, since this might be the major limitation of experiments carried out at low pollutant concentrations typical of the polluted atmosphere. Detailed investigation of three chamber experiments at zero-NO _x in the European Photoreactor (EUPHORE) were carried out by means of rate-of-production analysis and two uncertainty analysis tools: local uncertainty analysis and Monte Carlo simulations with Latin hypercube sampling. The chemical mechanism employed was that for methane plus the inorganic subset of the Master Chemical Mechanism (MCMv3.1). Newly installed instruments in EUPHORE allowed the measurement of nitrous acid and formaldehyde at sub-ppb concentrations with high sensitivity. The presence of HONO and HCHO during the experiments could be explained only by processes taking place on the FEP Teflon walls. The HONO production rate can be described by the empirical equation W(HONO)_EUPHORE ^dry = a × j _{NO 2}× exp (− T ₀/T) in the low relative humidity region (RH < 2%, a = 7.3×10²¹ cm⁻³, T ₀ = 8945K), and by the equation W(HONO)_EUPHORE ^humid = W(HONO)_EUPHORE ^dry+ j _{NO 2}× b × RH ^q in the higher relative humidity region (2% < RH < 15%, b = 5.8×10⁸ cm⁻³ and q = 0.36, and RH is the relative humidity in percentages). For HCHO the expression W(HCHO)_EUPHORE = c × j _{NO 2}exp (− T′₀/T) is applicable (c = 3.1×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and T′₀ = 5686 K). In the 0–15% relative humidity range OH production from HONO generated at the wall is about a factor of two higher than that from the photolysis of 100 ppb ozone. Effect of added NO₂ was found to be consistent with the dark HONO formation rate coefficient of MCMv3.1.     

Forstmeteorologische Untersuchungen an der Wald- und Baumgrenze in den Zentralalpen

Zusammenfassung Bei vergleichsweisen Registrierungen der Lufttemperatur und relativen Luftfeuchtigkeit, sowie bei Verdunstungseinzel-messungen, die im Bereiche der jetzigen (künstlichen) Wald- und Baumgrenze 10 km südwestlich von Innsbruck (Tirol) in Seehöhen von 1400 bis 1900 m in Bestand, Horst und Freiland durchgeführt wurden, ergaben sich deutliche Stationsunterschide. Trotz stärkerer Einstrahlung und höheren Windgeschwindigkeiten, wie sie die Höhenlage neben geringerer Bestockungsdichte bedingt, ergab sich im Bestandesinneren ein, gegenüber dem Freiland stark gemäßigtes Klima, das die Aushagerung des Bodens verhindert und vor allem der jungen Holzpflanze eine nicht zu übersehende Feuchtigkeitsreserve bietet. Bei extrem auftretenden Außeneinflüssen erfolgt allerdings eine raschere Angleichung an die Freilandsverhältnisse als in tieferen Lagen. Hoch- und Tieflagen unterscheiden sich demnach nur graduell und soweit, als es die lichtere Bestockung und größere Außenbeeinflussung der Hochlagen bedingen. Der Wirkungsgrad der Außeneinflüsse wurde auch von der Exposition bestimmt, die im Zusammenwirken mit der vorherrschenden Windrichtung das Auftreten der einzelnen Holzarten beeinflußte. Der stärkere Einfluß der Luftbewegung drückt sich auch im unsteten Momentancharakter der relativen Luftfeuchtigkeit aus.Der Einfluß der Vegetationsform auf die lokalen Kleinklimaverhältnisse ergab sich auch aus den Ergebnissen der Verdunstungsmessungen, die ein nach Holzart und Bestockungsform spezifisches Mosaikklima deutlich erkennen lie\en.

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Summary Distinctly perceptible differences between the stations in thicket and amount of timber as well as in open air resulted from comparing registrations of air temperature and relative humidity, and from measurements of evaporation which were made in range of the present (unnatural) timber line 10 km. south-west of Innsbruck (Tyrol) in altitudes of 1400–1900 m. (4600–6300 ft) above sea-level. In spite of the more intensive insolation and increased wind-velocity—corresponding to altitude and less density of wood—a very temperate climate in comparison with that of open field was evident within amount of timber, preventing impoverishment of soil and-first of all—offering a considerable reserve of moisture to the young tree. Extremely appearing external influences, however, effect a rapid assimilation to the conditions of open field likely to lower levels. The efficacy of the external influences also was fixed by the exposure which influences—together with the prevailing directions of wind—the occurences of the different species of timber. The greater effect of air-movement is also expressed by the unsteady momentary-character of the relative humidity.The influence of different plant communities upon the local climates followed from the results of evaporation measurements (evaporimeter Piche) which made recognizable a tesselated, mosaic-climate specifically to species and formation of timber, unless extreme external influences operated levelling.

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Résumé Des enregistrements comparatifs de la température de l'air et de l'humidité relative ainsi que des mesures d'évaporation effectués à la limite de l'atmosphère forestière ont mis en évidence de nettes différences entre les stations d'essais. Ces expériences ont été faites à 10 km. au sudouest d'Innsbruck (Tirol) dans les bois et la région non boisée, à une altitude de 1400 à 1900 m. Malgré l'insolation plus forte et les vitesses de vent plus grandes, dûes à l'altitude et à la densité plus faible de la forêt, on a constaté à l'intérieur du bois un climat très modéré par opposition à la région non boisée. Ce climat modéré s'oppose au desséchement du sol et assure aux jeunes pousses une humidité suffisante. Si les effets de la température sont extrêmes, l'adaptation aux conditions de la région non boisée est pourtant plus rapide qu'aux altitudes plus basses. Par conséquent les zones supérieures et inférieures ne se distinguent que graduellement, en fonction des forêts moins denses et des influences temporaires plus accusées. Le rôle du climat local est nettement déterminé par l'exposition qui, selon la direction dominante du vent, a une répercussion sur l'apparition des différentes essences de bois. La circulation active de l'air se traduit aussi par la variabilité instantaneé de l'humidité relative de l'air.Les mesures faites avec l'évaporimètre de Piche ont montré l'effet du bioclimat local sur la végétation. Ces travaux font nettement apparaître un climat «mozaïque» spécifique dépendant des différentes essences et de la densité de la population végétale.

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Characteristics of the atmospheric heat source and moisture sink over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the second TIPEX of summer 1998 and their impact on surrounding monsoon

Summary ?Using the data of 6 automatic heat balance observation (AWS) stations and a data set of 52 surface observation stations over the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (“the Plateau”) and surroundings, the horizontal distribution is studied of “apparent atmospheric heat sources” 〈Q ₁〉 and of “apparent atmospheric moisture sinks” 〈Q ₂〉. The AWS stations were established during the period May to August 1998 of the Tibetan Plateau Meteorological Experiment (second TIPEX) by a cooperation of China and Japan. For this period the Plateau mean of 〈Q ₁〉 is positive. Its value of 74 W/m² is a little greater than a climate value and than values from MONEX and the first TIPEX in 1979, respectively. Also the corresponding 〈Q ₂〉 is positive. Hence during that time the Plateau is a heat source and a moisture sink. A day-to-day change of 〈Q ₁〉 and 〈Q ₂〉 is more pronounced over the middle and east part of the Plateau than over the west part. Diagnostics accompanied by numerical simulations are used to study the daily relationship between 〈Q ₁〉 over the Plateau and the weather over China and Asia for this summer. The results suggest that 〈Q ₁〉 may affect precipitation over northern China and position of the west Pacific subtropical high. Abnormal southward retreat of this Pacific high seems to have caused the second flood over the middle and lower Yangtse river basin in July. Received May 20, 2001; revised February 2, 2002     

Der Einfluß der Temepratur auf das atmosphärische Ozon

Zusammenfassung A. undE. Vassy haben 1941 versucht, den atmosphärischen Ozongehalt (Gesamtozon) aus den entsprechenden Variationen der Stratosphärentemperatur und der eingestrahlten Sonnenenergie vollständig zu erklären. Sie machten zu diesem Zweck den Ansatze/J=f (T), und zeigten, daß die auf diesem Weg empirisch gefundene Funktionf (T) näherungsweise mit der Temperaturabhängigkeit der für das Ozongleichgewicht wesentlichen Reaktionskonstantenk (T) übereinstimmt. Im Gegensatz dazu kamen andere Autoren (Schröer, Dütsch undCraig), die unabhängig voneinander die photochemische Ozontheorie weiter ausbauten, zum Schluß, daß die gemessenen atmosphärischen Ozonbeträge keine rein photochemischen Gleichgewichtswerte sein können.Zur Aufklärung dieser Differenz wird der von A. undE. Vassy aufgestellte und als erste Näherung bezeichnete Ansatz hier auf Grund der photochemischen Theorie, die noch einmal knapp entwickelt wird, untersucht, wobei vor allem folgende Mängel festgestellt werden: Der Ansatz von A. undE. Vassy bringt eine enorme Überschätzung des Temperatureinflusses auf das Gesamtozon mit sich, was anhand von zwei, nach der photochemischen Theorie durchgerechneten Zahlenbeispielen belegt wird; wegen der Hereinahme der Tageslänge in den Ansatz zur Berechnung vonJ, welches Vorgehen der photochemischen Auffassung widerspricht, wird auch der Einfluß des wechselnden Sonnenstandes falsch eingeschätzt. Auf Grund der hier durchgeführten Untersuchung muß daher die von A. undE. Vassy aufgestellte Hypothese abgelehnt werden.

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Summary In 1941 A. andE. Vassy made an attempt to explain the atmospheric ozone content (total amount of ozone) fully from the corresponding variations of the temperature of the stratosphere and the total incoming solar energy. They started from the equatione/J=f (T) and showed that this empirically established functionf (T) depends on temperature approximately in the same manner as the reaction constantk (T) which is essential for the ozone equilibrium. In opposition to themSchröer, Dütsch andCraig enlarging the photochemical theory of ozone independent of each other infered that the measured total amounts of ozone cannot be explained by purely photochemical equilibrium conditions.An attempt is made here to clear up this difference by examining the formula, put forward by A. andE. Vassy as a first approximation. It is made along the lines of the photochemical theory, which is briefly explained. In this connection some shortcomings of theVassy theory are stated: The formula of A. andE. Vassy comprises a considerable overestimation of the influence of temperature exerted on the total amount of ozone, which criticism is supported by two numerical instances computed according to the photochemical theory. Owing to the fact that the length of the day is also considered in the formula for the calculation ofJ, which proceeding is in plain contradiction to the photochemical conception, the influence of the changing solar position is estimated erroneously as well. On the basis of the examination carried out here the hypothesis set out by A. andE. Vassy must be refused.

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Résumé A. etE. Vassy ont essayé en 1941 d'expliquer la teneur en ozone de l'atmosphère à l'aide des variations correspondantes de la température de la stratosphère et de l'énergie solaire rayonnée. Ils ont à cet effet posé que:e/J=f (T), et ils ont prétendu que la fonctionf (T) trouvée ainsi empiriquement correspond à peu près à celle qui lie la constante de réactionk (T) pour l'équilibre de l'ozone avec la températureT. Par contre trois auteurs (Schröer, Dütsch etCraig) qui indépendamment l'un de l'autre ont élaboré la théorie photochimique de l'ozone ont conclu que les teneurs observées ne peuvent correspondre à un équilibre photochimique pur.Pour expliquer ces divergences, on examine ici l'hypothèse de E. etA. Vassy dans le cadre de la théorie photochimique brièvement rappelée. On constate que cette hypothèse conduit à surestimer fortement le rôle de la température dans la quantité totale de l'ozone, fait confirmé par deux exemples numériques fondés sur la théorie photochimique; en introduisant la longueur du jour dans le calcul deJ — ce qui est contraire au point de vue photochimique — on tient faussement compte de l'effet de la variation de la hauteur solaire. La conclusion de cette étude est que l'hypothèse de E. etA. Vassy doit être rejetée.

     

Die Verwendung von orthogonalen Polynomen in der Meteorologie

Zusammenfassung Das Höhenfeld der 850 mb-Fläche über Mitteleuropa und dem Nordatlantik wird in einem Gitternetz aus 45 Punkten durch Orthogonalpolynome (Tschebytscheff-Polynome) dargestellt. Es wird ein Überblick darüber gegeben, welche Verwendungsmöglichkeiten dieser Darstellungsform künftighin untersucht werden sollen; es sind dies vor allem die objektive Klassifikation der Großwetterlagen, statistische Prognosen (besonders Mittelfristprognosen) und die Anwendung bei der numerischen Wettervorhersage. Als Beispiel für die Darstellung wird der Übergang von einer zonalen Wetterlage über eine meridionale wieder zu einer zonalen Lage an den Änderungen der Koeffizienten der Polynomkombinationen gezeigt.

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Summary The field of heights of the 850 mb-surface above Central Europe and the North Atlantic is represented in a grid of 45 points by means of orthogonal polynomials (Tchebycheff-polynomials). A general discussion is given which of the possible applications of this kind of representation shall further be investigated, i. e. first of all the objective classification of large scale weather situations (Großwetterlagen), statistical forecasts (especially medium range forecasts), and the application in numerical weather prediction. As an example of this representation, the variations of polynomial coefficients are given for the transition of a pressure field from zonal to meridional and back to zonal.

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Résumé Les hauteurs de la surface isobarique de 850 mb au dessus de l'Europe Centrale et de l'Océan Atlantique du Nord sont représentées dans un carrelage de 45 points par des polynoms orthogonaux (polynoms de Tchebycheff). Un aperçu est donné quel emploi possible de cette manière de représentation sera à examiner dans l'avenir; ce sont avant tout la classification objective des situations météorologiques générales (Großwetterlagen), les prévisions statistiques (particulièrement les prévisions à moyenne échéance) et l'application à la prévision numérique. Comme exemple de cette représentation la transition d'une situation météorologique zonale à une situation méridionale et vice versa à une situation zonale est montrée au moyen des variations des coefficients des combinaisons des polynoms.

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Herrn Prof. Dr.R. Inzinger, dem Vorstand des Mathematischen Labors der Technischen Hochschule Wien, sei an dieser Stelle gedankt, daß er für die rechnerischen Vorarbeiten die Maschinen seines Instituts und einen seiner Assistenten für deren Programmierung zur Verfügung stellte.     

Three-dimensional modeling of synthetic cold fronts approaching the Alps

Summary A numerical model was used to study the behaviour of prototype cold fronts as they approach the Alps. Two fronts with different orientations relative to the Alpine range have been considered. One front approaches from west, a second one from northwest. The first front is connected with southwesterly large-scale air-flow producing pre-frontal foehn, whereas the second front is associated with westerly largescale flow leading to weak blocking north of the Alps.Model simulations with fully represented orography and parameterized water phase conversions have been compared with control runs where either the orography was cut off or the phase conversions were omitted. The results show a strong orographic influence in case of pre-frontal foehn which warms the pre-frontal air and increases the cross-frontal temperature contrast leading to an acceleration of the front along the northern Alpine rim. The latent heat effect was found to depend much on the position of precipitation relative to the surface front line. In case of pre-frontal foehn precipitation only falls behind the surface front line into the intruding cold air where it partly evaporates. In contrary, precipitation already appears ahead of the front in the case of blocking. Thus, the cooling effect of evaporating rain increases the cross-frontal temperature difference only in the first case causing an additional acceleration of the front.List of symbols C _pd specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure (C _pd =1004.71 J kg^–1 K^–1) - C _pv specific heat capacity of water vapour at constant pressure (C _pv =1845.96 J kg^–1 K^–1) - C _f propagation speed of a front - x, y horizontal grid spacing (cartesian system) - , horizontal grid spacing (geographic system) - t time step - E turbulent kinetic energy - f Coriolis parameter - g gravity acceleration (g=9.81 ms^–1) - h terrain elevation - H height of model lid (H=9000 m) - k Karman constant (k=0.4) - K _Mh horizontal exchange coefficient of momentum - K _Hh horizontal exchange coefficient of heat and moisture - K _Mz vertical exchange coefficient of momentum - K _Hz vertical exchange coefficient of heat and moisture - l mixing length - l _c specific condensation heat (l _c =2500.61 kJ kg^–1) - l _f specific freezing heat (l _f =333.56 kJ kg^–1) - l _s specific sublimation heat (l _s =2834.17 kJ kg^–1) - longitude - m ₁,m ₂,m ₃ metric coefficients - p pressure - Exner function - Pr Prandtl number - latitude - _M profile function - q _v specific humidity - q _c specific content of cloud droplets - q _i specific content of cloud ice particles - q _R specific content of rain drops - q _S specific content of snow - R _d gas constant of dry air (R _d =287.06 J kg^–1 K^–1) - R _v gas constant of water vapour (R _v =461.51 J kg^–1 K^–1) - r _E radius of earth (r _E =6371 km) - Ri _F flux Richardson number - density of dry air - t time - T temperature - _dia period of diastrophy - potential temperature - _v virtual potential temperature - _e equivalent potential temperature - U relative humidity - u, v, w cartesian wind components - u _F ,v _F front-normal and front-parallel wind components - x, y, z cartesian coordinates - w ^* transformed vertical wind component - W _R speed of falling rain - W _S speed of falling snow - z ^* transformed vertical coordinate Abbreviations GND (above) ground level - MSL (above) mean sea level With 12 Figures