致断奶仔猪腹泻、水肿病大肠杆菌F18菌毛a因子单克隆抗体的研制及其初步应用

以表达 F18ac菌毛参考菌株 2 134(O15 7∶ H19)为研究对象 ,摸索出了 F18ac菌毛表达的最佳条件 ,采用热洗脱法获得了较纯的 F18ac菌毛 ,并以之免疫小鼠 ,利用淋巴细胞杂交瘤技术 ,用直接玻板凝集法筛选出 1株杂交瘤细胞株 19B4 ,能稳定分泌针对 F18ac菌毛和 F18ab菌毛共同抗原表位 a因子的单克隆抗体。细胞培养上清对 F18ac菌毛参考菌株 2 134和 F18ab菌毛参考菌株 10 7/ 86的直接凝集价均可达 1∶ 8,腹水单抗直接凝集效价可达 1∶ 10 2 4 ,而与猪源产 F4、F5、F6和 F4 1粘附素大肠杆菌菌株、鸡源产 型菌毛大肠杆菌菌株及沙门氏菌不发生凝集反应。免疫印迹试验结果显示 ,腹水单抗可同时特异识别 F18ac菌毛 170 0 0和 F18ab菌毛 15 0 0 0左右的主要亚单位多肽。应用所研制的单抗对 2 15株断奶仔猪腹泻大肠杆菌分离株进行了检测 ,结果上述分离株 TSB培养物的 F18菌毛的检出率为13.4 % ,TSA培养物的检出率为 8.4 %。F18菌毛阳性分离株的 O血清型除了常见血清型 O139、O14 1外 ,还有非常见血清型 O10 7、O131和 O9等。TSB培养物的 F18菌毛检出率明显高于 TSA培养物的检出率 ,表明 F18菌毛在 TSB培养基中比在 TSA培养基上更容易表达 ,TSB培养基是适合 F18菌毛检测、流行病学调查的培养基     

大肠杆菌菌毛类型检测及表达因素的研究

产肠毒素性大肠杆菌(ETEC)是引起幼畜下痢的主要病原之一,而其菌毛则是ETEC引起腹泻的最主要毒力因子。菌毛和相应宿主动物肠上皮细胞相黏附,定居肠道,产生毒素进而引起疾病。迄今在动物ETEC中已经发现的菌毛主要有F1、F4(K88)、F5(K99)、F6(987P)、F41等。除F6外,每种菌毛均具     

禽病原性大肠杆菌Ⅰ型菌毛单克隆抗体的研制及其对分离株的检测

从禽病原性大肠杆菌分离株 TK3 ( O1 )提取 型菌毛免疫 BALB/c小鼠 ,取其脾细胞与小鼠骨髓瘤细胞融合 ,获得 4株能稳定分泌针对 型菌毛的单克隆抗体杂交瘤细胞株 ,分别命名为 a B6 、b G5 、c F3和 c G3。单抗阻断甘露糖敏感血凝试验、免疫胶体金和 Western blot试验证明 ,单抗是 型菌毛特异的。这些单抗培养上清及腹水的 ELISA效价为分别为 1 0 - 2～ 1 0 - 3和 1 0 - 5～ 1 0 - 6 ;腹水的平板凝集价为 1∶ 1 2 8～ 1∶ 2 56。上述4株单抗对 77株带 型菌毛的禽病原性大肠杆菌优势血清型分离株进行了检测 :O1 8分离株阳性率为72 %,O78分离株阳性率为 1 7%,O2分离株阳性率为 3 3 %,O88分离株阳性率 89%,O1 1分离株阳性率为60 %,O2 6分离株阳性率为 3 3 %。表明研制的 型菌毛单抗能检出大多数 O1 8、O88、O1 1分离株的 型菌毛 ,而对 O78、O2、O2 6分离株相应菌毛的检出率较低     

动物性食品源大肠杆菌O血清型鉴定及其K88菌毛基因检测

本研究对河北省冀东地区农贸市场和超市采集的生猪肉、生鸡蛋和生羊肉等分离得到的20株大肠杆菌进行大肠杆菌血清型鉴定;并检测不同血清型大肠杆菌的K88菌毛基因。采用常规方法进行大肠杆菌的O血清型鉴定,用PCR方法检测K88菌毛基因。分离鉴定的20株大肠杆菌有7种血清型,包括O38、O78、O88、O11、O107、O91、O9,其中O38、O78为优势血清型菌,均占分离菌株的25%(5/20)。在分离的动物性食品源大肠杆菌中有30%(6/20)的菌株K88菌毛基因扩增呈阳性。结果表明,O78、O38为冀东地区动物性食品源大肠杆菌常见血清型,30%(6/20)的菌株K88菌毛基因扩增阳性。     

致猪水肿病大肠杆菌F18ab菌毛单克隆抗体的研制及其初步应用

将致猪水肿病大肠杆菌 F18ab菌毛提纯 ,以其免疫 BAL B/ c小鼠 ,利用淋巴细胞杂交瘤技术 ,经 3次融合 ,共筛选出 4株能稳定分泌针对 F18ab菌毛的特异单克隆抗体的杂交瘤细胞株 4 G8、4 H11、4 A2和 3A12 ,腹水单抗的直接凝集价最高可达 1∶ 32 0 0。免疫印迹试验表明 ,4株腹水单抗均可特异识别 F18ab菌毛 Mr 15 0 0 0左右的主要亚单位多肽。应用所研制的单抗对 11株猪水肿病大肠杆菌分离株 F18ab菌毛表达情况进行了检测 ,结果显示 ,上述分离株中F18ab菌毛的出现率为 72 .7% (8/ 11) ,检出的 F18ab菌毛阳性分离株的 O血清型均为 O1 39。     

海安县猪水肿病的流行病学与病原特性研究

对江苏省海安县2003年5月-2004年5月各乡镇猪水肿病的发病和死亡情况进行了流行病学调查,发现猪水肿病在该地区呈零星散发性发生,发病率为0.31%～1.84%,死亡率为0.07%～0.56%,病死率为16.0%～35.0%。水肿病主要侵害仔猪,育成猪也偶有发生,一般以气温比较高的季节多发。同时从疑似猪水肿病的病料中分离到12株大肠杆菌,经O血清型鉴定,5株为O139,2株为O45,O55、O93、O9、O101、O119各1株。经多重PCR检测毒素基因(STa、STb、LT、SLT-2e)和大肠杆菌粘附素单抗(F4、F5、F6、F41、F18)检测菌毛,共6个分离株带有SLT-2e基因,其中O139分离株5株,O55分离株1株,其余6株均带STb基因。12个分离株中,单独表达F18菌毛的4株(O1392株,O45、O119各1株),F5 F411株(O93),F41 F181株(O139),F5 F41 F182株(均为O139)。经药敏试验,多数分离菌株对壮观霉素和新霉素高度敏感。     

大肠杆菌菌毛基因多重PCR检测方法的建立与初步应用

为建立一种可以同时扩增大肠杆菌(E.coli)F4、F5、F6、F41和F18菌毛基因保守序列的多重PCR检测方法,本研究设计合成5对分别针对F4、F5、F6、F41和F18菌毛基因的特异性引物,以具有相应菌毛基因的E.coli参考菌株DNA为模板,通过对多重PCR反应条件的优化,建立了检测F4、F5、F6、F41和F18菌毛基因的多重PCR方法。所建立的多重PCR方法能够特异性扩增F4、F5、F6、F41、F18菌毛基因的目的片段,大小分别为770 bp、533 bp、422 bp、643 bp和1140 bp,该方法对沙门氏菌、猪丹毒杆菌、巴氏杆菌以及无菌毛基因的E.coli等参考菌株均无特异性扩增片段,检出F4、F5、F6、F41和F18菌毛基因的最低活菌浓度分别为5.3×10^5cfu/mL、3.7×10^6cfu/mL、3.1×10^5cfu/mL、3.7×10^7cfu/mL、6.9×10^5cfu/mL。用不同批次的引物和试剂进行3次多重PCR检测均能扩增出目的条带,表明建立的多重PCR方法有很好的批内和批间重复性。对90株大肠杆菌临床分离菌株菌毛基因进行检测,F4阳性率为3.33%,F5阳性率为2.22%,未检测到F6、F41和F18阳性菌株,其检测结果与常规单一PCR的检测结果一致。研究表明:建立的E.coli菌毛基因多重PCR分型方法具有很好的特异性、敏感性和重复性,可用于E.coli分离菌株菌毛基因型的快速鉴定,同时提高了检测效率。     

大肠杆菌Nissle 1917隐秘质粒消除方法的建立

质粒消除旨在获得无质粒菌株,是对益生菌进行遗传改造所需的一项重要技术。本试验建立在质粒不相容性的基础上,引入自杀性载体pRE112作为辅助工具,使用分子生物学方法构建重组自杀质粒pMUT1-pRE112和pMUT2-pRE112,将其分别导入携带2个大隐秘质粒pMUT1和pMUT2的益生菌大肠杆菌Nissle 1917(Escherichia coli Nissle 1917,EcN),利用重组自杀质粒去除EcN内原有隐秘质粒并在含有10%蔗糖的LB培养基上实施自杀质粒自身消除。结果试验成功获得EcN无质粒克隆菌株(Escherichia coli Nissle 1917cured of its two cryptic plasmids pMUT1and pMUT2,EcNc),为优质益生菌EcN更好的潜在应用研究奠定基础。     

鸡致病性大肠杆菌菌毛分型的初步研究

以鸡致病性大肠杆菌F1菌毛特异性单抗1F4－1、2C3、3H3和F11菌毛特异性单抗FA1、FB11作为检测试剂，将111株已知O抗原的鸡致病性大肠杆菌经MD液体培养基连续传代培养后，通过直接玻板凝集法对各菌毛进行初步分型。结果发现F1、F11菌毛与O78、O1及O2三种优势O抗原型菌株之间存在较为明显的相关性，即致病性大肠杆菌主要集中在上。F1、F11菌毛在这三种O抗原型上的总检出率分别为95．6％、75．4％及73．3％。另外，在所检测的111株鸡致病性大肠杆菌中，只表达F1菌毛的大肠杆菌占菌杆总数的33．3％。只表达F11菌毛的大肠杆菌占菌株总数的8．1％，两者都表达的占菌株总数的36％，F1、F11菌毛的总检出率为78．3％。     

仔猪水肿病的诊断与防治

猪水肿病是仔猪的一种急性致死性疾病。主要由产 Vero细胞毒素 (Verotoxin,VT)大肠杆菌(VTEC)引起。在发病猪群中 ,发病率低 ,但死亡率高 ,可达 90 % ,给养猪业造成了相当大的经济损失。VTEC有两个毒力因子即 F1 0 7(F1 8ac)菌毛和水肿病毒素 ;F1 0 7菌毛是近 1 0年来才发现的 ,其抗原性区别于 K88、K99、987P、F41等菌毛 ,具有 3 7℃表达、1 8℃不表达、非血凝性等特点 ;水肿病毒素即志贺样毒素 型变异体 ,分 A、B两个亚单位 ,A亚单位具有完全的毒性作用。致病基本原理是细菌依靠F1 0 7菌毛吸附于小肠上皮细胞 ,水肿病毒素 B亚…     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.