A STANDARD UNIT OF DIMENSION FOR MASONRY1

Construction problems due to lack of coördination in sizes of different masonry materials are pointed out. It is proposed that these difficulties can be overcome by adoption of a standard “unit” of dimension to be used by architects and engineers in dimensioning building plans, and by masonry material manufacturers in determining the size of their products. No definite “unit” of measure is suggested, except that it should approximate one brick length plus one mortar joint, two brick widths plus two joints, or three brick thicknesses plus three joints. The application of the “unit” plan is given for face brick, common brick, paving block, fire brick, cement block, structural clay tile, terra cotta, cut stone, and to masonry openings for windows and doors. Illustrated with 74 photographs of masonry and 2 plates.     

Performance of clay masonry prisms with light weight plaster exposed to standard fire exposure

Clay bricks are one of the most widely used materials in building construction due to their advantages, including local availability, ease of fabrication and cost-effectiveness. Fire is one of the dangerous hazards that can cause damage the life and property. Lightweight plasters play a vital role in insulating the masonry construction during fire accident. There is only limited data and information available on the fire performance of Clay Brick Masonry (CBM) insulated with lightweight plaster. An extensive investigation was undertaken to evaluate the residual strength properties and physical characteristics of CBM prisms exposed to elevated temperatures. CBM prisms plastered with M-sand mortar, vermiculite mortar, and perlite mortar were used for the investigation. Protected prisms were exposed to elevated temperatures following the ISO 834 standard fire curve for durations of 30 min (821°C), 60 min (925°C), 90 min (986°C), and 120 min (1029°C). Mechanical properties such as axial load carrying capacity, stress–strain behaviour, elastic modulus, and crack pattern were examined. The mechanical properties of CBM prisms were found to be highly influenced by the type of plastering, intensity, and the duration of heating. The microstructure and image analysis confirmed the effects of temperature exposure on protective plasters. Equations are proposed to determine the residual axial compressive strength and the elastic modulus of CBM. It was found that the specimens plastered with perlite mortar had better fire resistance.     

粉煤灰加气混凝土砌体力学性能与节能效应分析

利用室内试验方法制备了粉煤灰加气混凝土砌块和砌体,分别测试了混凝土砌块的抗拉抗压强度和砌体的抗拉和抗剪强度,分析了砌体抗压和抗剪强度随砂浆厚度的变化规律。在此基础上,建立了粉煤灰加气混凝土砌体节能效应的FLAC 3D数值计算模型。研究表明:(1)粉煤灰加气混凝土砌块的抗拉压强度平均值分别为4.53 MPa和0.75MPa;(2)粉煤灰加气混凝土砌体的整体抗压和抗剪强度随砂浆厚度的增大而分别减小和增大;(3)粉煤灰加气混凝土砌体的平均传热系数小于普通灰砂砖砌体,且随砂浆厚度的增大而减小。     

再生混凝土多孔砖砌体轴心抗压强度试验

制作再生混凝土骨料替代率为75%、抗压强度达到MU10的再生混凝土多孔砖。对18个再生混凝土多孔砖砌体试件在轴心荷载作用下的试验进行研究。考察再生混凝土多孔砖砌体在不同砂浆强度下的受压性能和极限承载力,分析砌体的受压变形过程和破坏特征。结果表明:再生混凝土多孔砖砌体的受压性能和普通混凝土多孔砖砌体的受压性能基本相似,极限状态时多孔砖砌体被贯通的竖向裂缝分隔成若干独立小立柱,小立柱被压坏,再生混凝土多孔砖砌体轴心抗压强度略小于普通混凝土多孔砖砌体。通过对试验数据的分析,参考现行《砌体结构设计规范》建议的公式,提出了再生混凝土多孔砖砌体的轴心抗压强度计算公式。     

TESTS OF REINFORCED BRICK COLUMNS*

This paper presents the data obtained in an extensive investigation on reinforced brick columns. The results furnished a basis for the development of rational design formulas. The strengths of the columns were found to be made up of the effective strength of the masonry plus the yield-point strength of the longitudinal reinforcement. A study of the type of masonry mortars revealed the fact that Portland cement mortar containing 15% ordinary brick clay by weight of the cement gave better results than did any of the other types used. A review of all known experiments on brick piers and columns is given.     

Green and early age compressive strength of extruded cement mortar monitored with compression tests and ultrasonic techniques

Knowledge about the early age compressive strength development of cementitious materials is an important factor for the progress and safety of many construction projects. This paper uses cylindrical mortar specimens produced with a ram extruder to investigate the transition of the mortar from plastic and deformable to hardened state. In addition, wave transmission and reflection measurements with P- and S-waves were conducted to obtain further information about the microstructural changes during the setting and hardening process. The experiments have shown that uniaxial compression tests conducted on extruded mortar cylinders are a useful tool to evaluate the green strength as well as the initiation and further development of the compressive strength of the tested material. The propagation of P-waves was found to be indicative of the internal structure of the tested mortars as influenced, for example, by the addition of fine clay particles. S-waves used in transmission and reflection mode proved to be sensitive to the inter-particle bonding caused by the cement hydration and expressed by an increase in compressive strength.     

The Adhesion Properties of Mortars in Relation with Microstructure

The interaction between masonry units and mortar is a crucial factor for the quality of a wall. The most important factor is the adhesion between bricks and mortar in order to construct a masonry wall with adequate strength, good impermeability, and durability. In this work mortars were produced with various cement/lime/aggregates ratio. The adhesion properties of the mortars with clay bricks were tested with a simplified tensile/tear testing measurement. In order to investigate the adhesion properties in relation with microstructure the mortars were characterized with X-ray diffraction and were further investigated with scanning electron microscopy and stereoscopy. It was found that adhesion is favored by the formation of a Si–Al matrix with a low Ca content in the brick/mortar interface and the formation of fine Ca–Al–Si phases which can penetrate into the brick.     

贯入法检测砌体外加钢筋网砂浆面层砂浆强度研究

通过研究贯入法检测砌体外加钢筋网砂浆面层工程中砂浆强度,依据现行《贯入法检测砌筑砂浆抗压强度技术规程》中砂浆测强曲线,对规范中回归方程进行修正,得到适用于贯入法检测砌体外加钢筋网砂浆面层工程中砂浆强度的回归方程式。     

生土砌体砌筑泥浆生态改性配方研究

针对在地震作用下生土砌体墙因砌筑泥浆强度低而沿灰缝处发生剪切破坏的问题,在考虑不破坏生土归田性的前提下,提出了生土泥浆生态改性配方以提高砌体抗剪强度。通过单因素、正交试验研究了糯米胶、丙烯酸乳液、速溶胶粉、纤维素等掺量对生土泥浆的抗剪强度、抗压强度和抗折强度的影响规律,得到改性泥浆最优配比,并在此基础上进行改性生土材料归田性分析及生土砌体抗剪试验。研究结果表明：泥浆经改性后,较传统非改性泥浆抗剪强度提高了50.55%,抗压强度提高了33.14%,抗折强度提高了23.48%;改性后的生土材料能使农作物正常生长,土壤成分分析符合植物种植标准,归田性没有被破坏;采用改性泥浆的生土砌体相较于未改性生土砌体抗剪强度提升了34.77%。     

HIGH TEMPERATURE LOAD AND FUSION TESTS OF FIRE BRICK FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER WELL-KNOWN FIRE BRICK1

Seventeen samples of fire-clay brick from the Pacific Northwest have been tested with twenty-seven other commercial brands of fire clay, silica, magnesia, chromite, zirconia, diaspore, silicon carbide and crystalline alumina, as well as china clay and crystalline sillimanite products made at the University of Washington. The tests show that the fire-clay brick of the Pacific Northwest vary considerably in quality. According to the high temperature load test, the majority of the local brick are among the upper grades, some are to be classed with the best fire-clay brick and one equal to the best diaspore brick. The brick tested is not the best which can be made from Pacific Northwest materials, for the kaolins in eastern Washington and northwestern Idaho give opportunity for the production of an all-kaolin fire brick. A method is suggested for testing super-refractory materials under load at high temperatures similar to the standard load test for fire clay and silica brick except that the temperatures are measured by cones, and are raised until 10% linear deformation of the brick is obtained. The rate of heating and soaking varies with the brick under test, and the principles learned from the cone fusion test are used in the application of heat. A numerical value, expressing the area under the cone-shrinkage curve, affords an easy method for comparing the high temperature load resistance of various refractories. The brick which are best able to resist deformation at high temperatures are composed of crystalline materials which have developed a recrystallized bond of the same composition. These are crystalline silica, silicon carbide, corundum and sillimanite, and they resist deformation at temperatures close to their melting points. Amorphous materials like fire clay, diaspore, bauxite or even the very refractory crystalline materials lie chromite and periclase, which depend on amorphous silicates for a bond or are contaminated with silicate impurities. will fail with the softening of the bond of the amorphous impurities. The cone fusion of the brick as a whole can not be depended upon to indicate the resistance to load at high temperatures.     

Residual compressive strength of fire‐damaged mortar after post‐fire‐air‐curing

The effects of cooling regimes and post‐fire‐air‐curing on compressive strength of mortar were investigated. Mortars were made with CEN reference sand, CEM I 42.5 R cement and natural spring water. The sand–cement and water–cement materials' ratios were chosen as 3.0 and 0.50 for all mixtures, respectively. At 28 days, the specimens were heated to maximum temperatures of 400, 600, 800 and 1000°C. Specimens were then allowed to cool in the air, furnace and water. After cooling, the specimens were air‐recured. Compressive strength test was carried out before air‐recuring and after 7 days of air‐recuring. The highest reduction in compressive strength was observed at 1000°C regardless of cooling regime. Gradual cooling regime in air and furnace without post curing showed almost no difference in terms of compressive strength reduction for four elevated temperatures. Shock cooling in water caused significant reduction in compressive strength compared with both gradual cooling regimes without post curing. After air and furnace cooling regimes, 7 days air‐recured specimens showed further reduction in compressive strength for four elevated temperatures. Specimens cooled in water and subjected to 7 days air‐recuring showed significant strength gain approximately 39, 100 and 130% for 400, 600 and 800°C elevated temperature, respectively. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

COLD CRUSHING STRENGTH OF FIRE BRICK1

Data on cold crushing strength in three directions, viz., flat, edge, and endwise of six brands of fire brick are given. Transverse strength data of all these brands are also given. Porosities of all the brick used in these tests were determined by the air-expansion method. The purpose of the investigation was to find whether it is possible to translate the values obtained for crushing strength of fire brick in one direction (flat) into values for the other directions (end and edge); to determine whether transverse strength data can similarly be transformed to crushing strength data and vice versa and whether porosity and crushing strength of fire brick are correlated. The data herein presented do not show the existence of any such simple mathematical relationship between the different properties of the brick. A new capping material, a mixture of sand and molten sulphur, was used for the crushing tests, and was found to be more satisfactory than the other materials commonly used for the purpose. It is recommended that in reporting crushing strength data of fire brick, the brick be tested on end.     

THE MECHANISM OF SPALLING1

A study has been made of the stresses and fractures developed in a solid when rapidly heated or cooled. The stresses were measured in bakelite specimens by the photoelastic method. High stresses in all cases were found to occur near the surface of the solids, but no high tension stresses were present when the specimens were being heated. A number of vitreous clay spheres and bricks were heated and cooled rapidly and the nature of the cracks was noted. In practically every case the fractures occurred as predicted from the measured stresses. Torque-deflection curves were obtained for a number of fire brick in torsion at different temperatures. The temperature at which plastic flow occurs for every material tested was approximately the same as the temperature of the initial deflection under compressive loads in a standard load test.     

STUDIES ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF SOME REFRACTORY MATERIALS1

The method used was a modification of that described by Hepplewhite. The changes made were for the purpose of insuring greater accuracy. An effective means for preventing lateral flow of heat was devised. The coefficients obtained for the several materials studied were (c. g s. units) silica brick .00099, fire clay brick .00169, fire clay slab .00203, light weight fire clay brick .00251, sillimanite brick .00432, electrically sintered magnesia brick .00665, “Alundum” fire brick .00833, “Crystolon” silicon carbide brick .00982. [The work for this paper including the design, erection and operation of the apparatus, most of the calculations and the preparation of the detailed report was done by 0. S. Buckner.]     

不同类型再生细骨料对保温混凝土力学性能的影响

为了研究不同类型再生细骨料对玻化微珠保温混凝土力学性能的影响,将废弃混凝土再生细骨料和废弃黏土砖再生细骨料分别以25%、50%、75%和100%(体积分数)取代率取代保温混凝土中的天然河砂,并测试了再生保温混凝土的抗压强度、劈裂抗拉强度和弹性模量。结果表明: 25%是废弃混凝土再生细骨料在保温混凝土中的最优取代率;75%是废弃黏土砖再生细骨料在保温混凝土中的最优取代率。再生细骨料的压碎值和再生胶砂强度比在实际工程中可以有效区分不同类型再生细骨料的品质。废弃黏土砖再生细骨料中的火山灰材料可以有效提高再生保温混凝土的密实度,而废弃混凝土再生细骨料中残余的氢氧化钙却降低了再生保温混凝土的力学性能,因而废弃黏土砖再生细骨料具有更高的回收利用价值。     

利用砖混建筑废弃物制备再生混凝土的性能研究

由砖混建筑废弃物制备的再生粗骨料通常含有部分碎砖粗骨料。为研究碎砖含量对混凝土性能的影响,将再生混凝土粗骨料和碎砖粗骨料按不同比例(体积分数)混合制备混合型再生粗骨料,并以30%的取代率取代天然骨料浇筑混凝土试块进行试验研究。研究结果表明:混凝土破坏时,天然粗骨料沿粗骨料与砂浆之间的界面过渡区断裂失效,而碎砖粗骨料则是贯穿粗骨料内部断裂失效;当碎砖含量不超过18%时,对混凝土抗压强度和抗氯离子渗透性能没有明显影响,碎砖含量超过18%时,抗压强度和抗氯离子渗透性明显下降;碎砖含量越大,混凝土抗盐冻能力越差;当砖含量不变时,水灰比越高,再生碎砖粗骨料对混凝土抗压强度的不利影响越小。     

Residual mechanical resistance of concrete blocks and laying mortars after high temperatures

This paper reports an experimental campaign to evaluate the residual mechanical resistance after high temperatures of two structural masonry components: block and mortar. Residual compressive strength and deformation modulus of four different hollow concrete blocks and two different mortar mixes after heating at high temperatures are investigated. The test method used was the one recommended by RILEM TC 200 for mortars and an adaptation of the same method proposed by Medeiros et al. suitable for the geometry of hollow blocks. Despite the sharp drop in the deformation modulus after heating blocks and mortar, no different behaviours are observed in the deformability of the materials caused by the variables studied. The same cannot be said in relation to the variation of the residual compressive strength of the blocks, which is affected by the variables: initial nominal compressive strength and width of the concrete block. Regarding laying mortars, the results confirmed the small influence of compressive strength on the evolution of residual mechanical strength. The data and analyses reported here on the residual mechanical properties of hollow concrete blocks produced from a concrete mixture of very dry consistency, vibro-pressed and with normal weight aggregates are relevant, since the data found in the literature generally refer to the wet cast concrete material and in cylindrical bodies.     

Use of ground clay brick as a pozzolanic material to reduce the alkali-silica reaction

The objective of this experimental study was to use ground clay brick (GCB) as a pozzolanic material to minimize the alkali-silica reaction expansion. Two different types of clay bricks were finely ground and their activity indices were determined. ASTM accelerated mortar bar tests were performed to investigate the effect of GCB when used to replace cement mass. The microstructure of the mortar was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the GCBs meet the strength activity requirements of ASTM. In addition, the GCBs were found to be effective in suppressing the alkali-silica reaction expansion. The expansion decreased as the amount of GCBs in the mortar increased.     

The use of recycled paper processing residues in making porous brick with reduced thermal conductivity

Production of porous and light-weight bricks with reduced thermal conductivity and acceptable compressive strength is accomplished. Paper processing residues were used as an additive to an earthenware brick to produce the pores. SEM-EDS, XRD, XRF and TG-DTA analysis of the paper waste and brick raw material were performed. Mixtures containing brick raw materials and the paper waste were prepared at different proportions (up to 30 wt%). The granulated powder mixtures were compressed in a hydraulic press, and the green bodies were dried before firing at 1100 °C. Dilatometric behaviours, drying and firing shrinkages were investigated as well as the loss on ignition, bulk density, apparent porosity, water absorption and thermal conductivity values of the fired samples. Their mechanical and microstructural properties were also investigated. The results obtained showed that the use of paper processing residues decreased the fired density of the bricks down to 1.28 g/cm³. Compressive strengths of the brick samples produced in this study were higher than that required by the standards. Thermal conductivity of the porous brick produced in this study (<0.4 W/m K) showed more than 50% reduction compared to local brick of the same composition (0.8 W/m K). Conversion of this product to a perforated brick may reduce its thermal conductivity to very low values. Successful preliminary tests were conducted on an industrial scale.     

Utilization of wastewater precipitates from Tanneries in production of construction ceramics

Ceramic samples were obtained from the mixtures containing sewage precipitate from Ryazan’ Tannery, clay from a local brick factory, and basic slag from Ryazan’ Metallurgical Plant. The sample properties (compressive strength, acid resistance, and alkali resistance) as well as the presence of heavy metals in the solutions after testing were determined. The mixtures containing the precipitate reliably bind heavy metals and are promising for utilization of tannery waste in production of ceramic wall materials. The processes occurring in sintering of the samples are explained.