Modeling and underwater characterization of cymbal transducers and arrays

The cymbal is a miniaturized class V flextensional transducer that was developed for potential use as a shallow water sound projector and receiver. Single elements are characterized by high Q, low efficiency, and medium power output capability. Its low cost and thin profile allow the transducer to be assembled into large flexible arrays. Efforts were made to model both single element and transducer arrays by coupling finite element analysis (ATILA) and the integral equation formulation (EQI). The pressure and velocity distributions on the surface elements were calculated by ATILA and later used with EQI to calculate the far held properties of the transducer element and arrays. It eliminates the mesh of the fluid domain and makes the 3-D model of a transducer possible. Three-dimensional models of a cymbal transducer and a 3×3 cymbal array were developed in the modeling. Very good agreement was obtained between modeling and measurement for single element transducers. By coupling finite element analysis with the integral equation method using boundary elements, acoustic interaction effects were taken into account. Reasonable agreement was obtained between calculation and measurement for a 3×3 array     

Phase aberration correction in two dimensions with an integrateddeformable actuator/transducer

Two-dimensional arrays are required to implement two-dimensional phase aberration correction using traditional electronic correction techniques. A new transducer design, deformable in the elevation dimension, can be used to implement two-dimensional phase correction without using a full two-dimensional array. Phase correction in azimuth is achieved by altering the electronic phase delays of the elements. Phase correction in elevation is achieved by tilting the elements in elevation with piezoelectric actuators. Previously, such deformable arrays were fabricated by bonding PZT array elements to low frequency actuators. The construction of deformable arrays is simplified by using the actuator for both the element deflection and the generation of ultrasound. The new construction technique was used to fabricate a prototype 1×32 deformable array with a 3.5 MHz center frequency and an actuator flexure resonance of 3° at 1.3 kHz with a 300 Vpp sine wave. The prototype array was characterized and used to make B-scan images. Phase correction was simulated by tilting the elements on-line to alter the B-scan image and resulted in a cyst contrast reduction from 0.86 for the control to 0.76 with the elements tilted. Further characterization of the deformable array performance includes the frequency response of the actuator. Initial results from a 2×32 deformable array fabricated with the new construction technique are also presented. The 2×32 array configuration additionally offers the potential for on-line elevation focusing     

MEMS矢量水听器声压通道封装技术研究

为了更全面地获取水下声场信息,微机电系统（Micro-Electro-Mechanical System,MEMS）矢量水听器常需集成声压敏感通道来提升单个换能器性能,MEMS矢量水听器的敏感芯片采用的是MEMS工艺制备完成,其封装必须与水隔离,传统的橡胶灌封方式会破坏MEMS敏感芯片的机电性能,故MEMS敏感芯片常采用油封的方式,如硅油/蓖麻油。相反,对于MEMS矢量水听器声压通道的封装技术却不尽相同。文章选择给定尺寸的沿径向极化的压电陶瓷圆环,针对低频5～2 000 Hz的探测频带需求,对比了两种不同封装形式,即聚氨酯密封和硅油作为耦合剂的聚氨酯密封,对声压通道接收灵敏度的影响规律。首先,建立了四种仿真模型,分析了不同形式下,接收灵敏度的变化规律。接着,设计了聚氨酯灌封和硅油耦合聚氨酯密封两种封装结构,并制备了实物。最后在驻波管中对两种封装形式的压电陶瓷圆环进行了接收灵敏度标定。结果显示,聚氨酯灌封和硅油耦合聚氨酯密封对声压通道的接收灵敏度特性影响不大,实操过程中要注意两种方式的工艺复杂度区别。     

PVDF reference hydrophone development in the UK-from fabrication and lamination to use as secondary standards

During the last 30 yrs, PVDF has been used extensively as a sensor material. Over this period, the GEC-Marconi Research Centre has developed a wide range of devices based on PVDF as a piezoelectric transducer material. The ability to create laminated structures has led to an enhancement in performance and has allowed innovative designs to be realized. This paper describes the development of the laminated PVDF structure and its benefits, such as increased sensitivity and improved signal to noise ratio. Examples of devices utilizing the lamination process are given in the form of both a bilaminar-shielded membrane hydrophone and a PVDF sonar hydrophone. Performance properties of both types of hydrophones are presented along with a discussion of their use as secondary standard hydrophones at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL).     

Comparison of barrel-stave sonar transducer simulations between a coupled FE-BEM and ATILA

An acoustic analysis of a barrel-stave sonar transducer has been performed using a coupled finite element-boundary element method developed by the author. The dynamics of the piezoelectric flextensional sonar transducer is modeled in three dimensions and is analyzed with external electrical excitation conditions. Different results are available such as steady-state displacement modes, underwater directivity patterns, resonant frequencies, and transmitting voltage responses. The results of this analysis were then compared and found to be in good agreement to the same analysis performed using ATILA.     

基于矢量水听器阵的恒定束宽波束形成器的原理与设计

摘要：在对水下目标进行探测识别的应用中，一般要求声纳系统具备在较宽频带内形成恒定束宽波束的能力：过去对声纳恒定束宽波束形成器的研究一直针对声压水听器阵，近来随着对矢量水听器认识的深入，开展基于矢量水听器阵的恒定束宽波束形成器研究越发变得必要。本文正是体现了作者在这一方面的阶段性研究成果。文中首先介绍了单个矢量水听器的指向特性，接着提出了矢量水听器阵宽带恒定束宽波束形成器的实现原理和设汁方法，并以均匀等间距线阵为例，给出了获得实现恒定束宽算法所需频域加权矩阵的步骤，之后又进一步给出了恒定束宽算法的频域实现流程，并通过计算机仿真验证了其有效性：     

Standard and reference hydrophones in the infrasonic and sonic frequency ranges

Conclusions As indicated by these studies, the proposed symmetrical piston-type piezoelectric transducers provide an answer to the question of how to make standard quartz and reference piezoelectric ceramic hydrophones for the sonic and infrasonic frequency ranges.The quartz hydrophones can also be used to investigate the sensitivity of piezoelectric ceramic hydrophones as a function of temperature and static pressure.The piezoelectric ceramic transducers of the proposed design operate very effectively in the radiation mode.Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 5, pp. 66–68, May, 1973.     

Micromachined high frequency ferroelectric sonar transducers

Millimeter-sized ferroelectric monomorph sonar transducers have been built using sol-gel PZT on micromachined silicon wafers. First generation transducer arrays with diaphragms varying in size from 0.2 to 2 mm were tested. Second generation 8×8 arrays have also been built and tested in water in the frequency range of 0.3 to 2 MHz. Improvements to the sol-gel process have yielded high-quality, crack-free PZT films up to 12 μm in thickness, which leads directly to higher sensitivity and figure of merit for acoustic transducers. The longitudinal piezoelectric coefficient d₃₃ is 140 to 240 pC/N, measured through a double beam laser interferometer. Remanent polarization of 28 μC/cm², a coercive field of 30 kV/cm, and dielectric constant of 1400 were measured on 4-μm thick films. Test results are presented, including frequency response, beam patterns, and sensitivity. High-resolution acoustic images have been generated using these transducers and a four-element underwater acoustic lens. Potential applications for these transducers include high-frequency imaging sonars, medical ultrasound, ultrasonic communication links, and flaw detection (NDT)     

Backscatter coefficient estimation using array transducers

This paper describes an extension of our broadband method for estimating backscatter coefficients from random media to include data from array transducers. Four different transducer designs have now been considered: oneand two-dimensional linear arrays, annular arrays, and single-element focused pistons commonly used in mechanical sector scanners. The analysis shows that if the backscatter echo spectrum is properly normalized, the shape of the piezoelectric elements affects only the magnitude and not the frequency dependence of the backscatter coefficient estimates. Experimental data were acquired using laboratory and clinical imaging instrumentation to verify the analysis. We compared backscatter coefficients measured as a function of frequency from well-defined scattering media that were obtained using a 1-D linear array and focused piston transducers. Instrument-independent results were found that matched theoretical predictions within the measurement error between 2 and 12 MHz. We conclude from this study that accurate backscatter coefficient estimates may be easily obtained using current clinical imaging instrumentation.     

Three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging using a two-dimensional CMUT array

In this paper, we describe using a 2-D array of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) to perform 3-D photoacoustic and acoustic imaging. A tunable optical parametric oscillator laser system that generates nanosecond laser pulses was used to induce the photoacoustic signals. To demonstrate the feasibility of the system, 2 different phantoms were imaged. The first phantom consisted of alternating black and transparent fishing lines of 180 μm and 150 μm diameter, respectively. The second phantom comprised polyethylene tubes, embedded in chicken breast tissue, filled with liquids such as the dye indocyanine green, pig blood, and a mixture of the 2. The tubes were embedded at a depth of 0.8 cm inside the tissue and were at an overall distance of 1.8 cm from the CMUT array. Two-dimensional cross-sectional slices and 3-D volume rendered images of pulse-echo data as well as photoacoustic data are presented. The profile and beamwidths of the fishing line are analyzed and compared with a numerical simulation carried out using the Field II ultrasound simulation software. We investigated using a large aperture (64 x 64 element array) to perform photoacoustic and acoustic imaging by mechanically scanning a smaller CMUT array (16 x 16 elements). Two-dimensional transducer arrays overcome many of the limitations of a mechanically scanned system and enable volumetric imaging. Advantages of CMUT technology for photoacoustic imaging include the ease of integration with electronics, ability to fabricate large, fully populated 2-D arrays with arbitrary geometries, wide-bandwidth arrays and high-frequency arrays. A CMUT based photoacoustic system is proposed as a viable alternative to a piezoelectric transducer based photoacoustic systems.     

稀土IV型弯张换能器研究

IV型弯张换能器低频发射时具有尺寸小、重量轻的特点,是一种常用的水下低频大功率声源。稀土超磁致伸缩材料相较于压电陶瓷拥有更大的应变量和能量密度,并且杨氏模量较小,可以有效降低换能器谐振频率。利用稀土超磁致伸缩材料作为激励材料,设计了一种低频IV型弯张换能器,对其静态磁场和动态磁场进行了分析,构建出双棒式磁路,并使用有限元分析软件进行了换能器的结构建模与计算。根据计算结果制作了稀土IV型弯张换能器样机,测试结果表明所设计的换能器与仿真结果吻合较好,水中谐振频率为370 Hz,最大声源级为196 d B,能够实现低频、大功率发射。     

Microconfigured piezoelectric artificial materials for hydrophones

Piezoelectric PZT–air composites with a complex design optimized for hydrophones were fabricated as arrays of hundreds of 60 μ units using a microfabrication technique involving coextrusion of mixtures of thermoplastic with PZT powder or carbon powder. The measured piezoelectric coefficient was 300 pC/N with a figure of merit of 18 pm²/N, in excellent agreement with the predicted properties.     

Transducer design for a portable ultrasound enhanced transdermal drug-delivery system

For application in a portable transdermal drug-delivery system, novel transducers have been designed to enhance insulin transmission across skin using ultrasound. Previous research has shown transdermal delivery of insulin across skin using commercial sonicators operating at 20 kHz with intensities ranging from 12.5 to 225 mW/cm/sup 2/. The goal of this research was to design and construct a small, lightweight transducer or array that could operate with a similar frequency and intensity range as a commercial sonicator used in previous transdermal ultrasound insulin experiments, but without the weight and mass of a sonicator probe. To obtain this intensity range, a cymbal transducer design was chosen because of its light, compact structure and low resonance frequency in water. To increase the spatial ultrasound field for drug delivery across skin, two arrays, each comprising of four cymbal transducers, were constructed. The first array, designated the standard array, used four cymbals transducer elements in parallel. A second array (named the stack array) used four cymbal transducers that used stacked piezoelectric discs to drive the titanium flextensional caps. Under similar driving conditions, the standard array produced intensities comparable to those achieved using a commercial sonicator.     

Piezoelectrically actuated flextensional micromachined ultrasound transducers--II: fabrication and experiments

This paper presents novel micromachined two-dimensional array piezoelectrically actuated flextensional transducers that can be used to generate sound in air or water. Micromachining techniques to fabricate these devices are also presented. Individual unimorph array elements consist of a thin piezoelectric annular disk and a thin, fully clamped, circular plate. We manufacture the transducer in two-dimensional arrays using planar silicon micromachining and demonstrate ultrasound transmission in air at 2.85 MHz with 0.15 μm/V peak displacement. The devices have a range of operating resonance frequencies starting from 450 kHz to 4.5 MHz. Such an array could be combined with on-board driving and addressing circuitry for different applications     

开阔水域下换能器指向性实船校准方法研究

随着换能器谐振频率的降低,其尺寸一般会增大,现有的测量方法对其指向性的测量越来越困难,而且换能器在实船安装前后性能会发生变化。文章提出了一种基于三维立体水听器阵列的开阔水域下换能器指向性实船校准方法。利用超短基线定位和坐标转换确定待校准换能器与水听器阵列的位置与方向,并通过水听器阵的接收声压数据绘制换能器的指向性图。在湖上试验时分别使用标准测量法和实船校准法测量换能器的指向性,并对5 kHz和2.5 kHz频率下的实验数据进行对比分析,测试结果表明：-3 dB波束宽度误差分别为4.2%和7.4%,均满足水声测量误差低于10%的要求,证明了实船校准法的可行性和有效性。     

双平行线阵的水下二维DOA估计算法

利用集群自主式水下航行器（Autonomous Underwater Vehicles,AUV）进行的水下协同作业的需求越来越多。对于水下集群作业来说,AUV的水下定位非常重要。目前,AUV通常采用声学定位的工作模式,利用长、短基线阵对水下目标的二维波达方向（Direction of Arrival,DOA）进行估计,但在小型AUV上,基阵的阵列尺寸等受载体体积和换能器尺寸的共同限制,多信源条件下DOA估计的精度不高。设计低功耗平台,采用双平行线阵及传播算子算法来对多源目标进行二维DOA估计,结合通信与声学定位一体化方法,利用高频通信信号作为定位信号源,实现多信源环境中估计角度自动配对,在阵列尺寸受限的小型AUV上布放时,有较好的DOA估计效果。仿真结果验证了该方法的有效性。     

Piezoelectric films for high frequency ultrasonic transducers in biomedical applications

Piezoelectric films have recently attracted considerable attention in the development of various sensor and actuator devices such as nonvolatile memories, tunable microwave circuits and ultrasound transducers. In this paper, an overview of the state of art in piezoelectric films for high frequency transducer applications is presented. Firstly, the basic principles of piezoelectric materials and design considerations for ultrasound transducers will be introduced. Following the review, the current status of the piezoelectric films and recent progress in the development of high frequency ultrasonic transducers will be discussed. Then details for preparation and structure of the materials derived from piezoelectric thick film technologies will be described. Both chemical and physical methods are included in the discussion, namely, the sol-gel approach, aerosol technology and hydrothermal method. The electric and piezoelectric properties of the piezoelectric films, which are very important for transducer applications, such as permittivity and electromechanical coupling factor, are also addressed. Finally, the recent developments in the high frequency transducers and arrays with piezoelectric ZnO and PZT thick film using MEMS technology are presented. In addition, current problems and further direction of the piezoelectric films for very high frequency ultrasound application (up to GHz) are also discussed.     

A CMUT probe for medical ultrasonography: from microfabrication to system integration

Medical ultrasonography is a powerful and cost-effective diagnostic technique. To date, high-end medical imaging systems are able to efficiently implement real-time image formation techniques that can dramatically improve the diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. Highly performing and thermally efficient ultrasound probes are then required to successfully enable the most advanced techniques. In this context, ultrasound transducer technology is the current limiting factor. Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) are micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based devices that have been widely recognized as a valuable alternative to piezoelectric transducer technology in a variety of medical imaging applications. Wideband operation, good thermal efficiency, and low fabrication cost, especially for those applications requiring high-volume production of small-area dice, are strength factors that may justify the adoption of this MEMS technology in the medical ultrasound imaging field. This paper presents the design, development, fabrication, and characterization of a 12-MHz ultrasound probe for medical imaging, based on a CMUT array. The CMUT array is microfabricated and packed using a novel fabrication concept specifically conceived for imaging transducer arrays. The performance of the developed probe is optimized by including analog front-end reception electronics. Characterization and imaging results are used to assess the performance of CMUTs with respect to conventional piezoelectric transducers.     

An analytical model for guided wave inspection optimization for prismatic structures of any cross section

This paper presents an analytical modeling technique for the simulation of long-range ultrasonic guided waves in structures. The model may be used to predict the displacement field in a prismatic structure arising from any excitation arrangement and may therefore be used as a tool to design new inspection systems. It is computationally efficient and relatively simple to implement, yet gives accuracy similar to finite element analysis and semi-analytical finite element analysis methods. The model has many potential applications; one example is the optimization of part-circumferential arrays where access to the full circumference of the pipe is restricted. The model has been successfully validated by comparison with finite element solutions. Experimental validation has also been carried out using an array of piezoelectric transducer elements to measure the displacement field arising from a single transducer element in an 88.9-mm-diameter pipe. Good agreement has been obtained between the two models and the experimental data.     

Characterization of high-frequency, single-element focused transducers with wire target and hydrophone

In this paper, a wire-target technique was used for lateral beam profile measurements for a single-element, focused transducers in the very high-frequency range (35-60 MHz). Two wire targets made from 9-cm long tungsten wires with diameters of 8 microm and 20 microm were used as the pulse-echo targets to measure the lateral beam profiles at the focal plane of two single-element, focused transducers, a spherically focused 40 MHz transducer and a lens-focused in-house lithium niobate (LiNbO3) 60 MHz transducer. For comparison, measurements on the same transducers were performed by three small-aperture hydrophones with geometrical diameters varying from 37 microm to 150 microm. Tomographic reconstruction of the acoustic field from the spherically focused transducer also was conducted. Results obtained with the wire-target technique are comparable to those obtained with small-aperture hydrophones in characterizing lateral radiation patterns of a single-element, focused transducer in the high-frequency range (35-60 MHz). However, the wire-target method may overestimate pulse length because of the additional attenuation caused by the return path. Compared to small-aperture hydrophones, the wire-target technique is simpler and more cost effective. Its major advantage, however, is in the frequency range above 100 MHz in which commercial hydrophones are not yet available.