金属有机骨架材料在锂硫电池正极中的应用

锂硫电池因其具有高的理论能量密度,近年来成为高性能二次电池领域的研究热点。为了有效提升锂硫电池的电化学性能,具有孔径分布可控、孔隙率高以及易于功能化等诸多优点的金属有机骨架(MOFs)材料被广泛探索研究。通过对MOFs材料进行修饰改性,制备的多种MOF复合材料、MOF衍生材料表现出了更优的电化学性能,有效提升了电极反应动力学、改善了电池循环性能。针对当前锂硫电池研究中的关键问题,对各类MOFs材料、MOF复合材料和MOF衍生材料在锂硫电池正极中应用的研究进展进行了综述,并对未来MOF基材料在锂硫电池正极中应用的发展趋势作出了展望。     

锂硫二次电池硫/碳正极复合材料的研究进展

锂硫电池因其具有高能量密度、较好的安全性、绿色环保和低成本等特点,成为未来动力电池最具吸引力的体系之一。但是,因其放电产物多硫化物易溶于有机电解液以致锂硫电池循环性能差,制约了锂硫电池的快速发展。碳材料利用其高的比表面积和多孔结构吸附电极反应的中间产物多硫化锂,起到固硫的作用,提高电池的循环性能。综述了锂硫电池硫/碳正极复合材料的研究现状;分析了影响锂硫电池循环性能的主要因素;简述了锂硫电池硫/碳正极复合材料今后研究的方向。     

高性能锂硫电池碳基硫宿主的研究进展

“双碳”战略要求新型储能器件具备更高的能量密度和更低的成本。锂硫电池因其低成本、环保和高比能(2600 Wh kg^-1)等优势,而成为储能领域中最具潜能的电池体系,已受到了广泛的关注及研究。近年来,锂硫电池已取得了系列进展,但仍面临一些问题与挑战,包括硫固有的电荷传输效率差、可溶性多硫化物的“穿梭效应”、充放电过程中的剧烈体积膨胀及锂枝晶的生长等,这些问题会导致锂硫电池性能下降甚至失效。碳基硫宿主具有多孔、高电导、轻质、大比表面积等优点,能够有效解决以上难题,已成为锂硫电池研究领域中的重要方向。而碳材料种类繁多,有碳纳米纤维、碳纳米管、碳纳米片、碳纳米花等,不同形貌或具备不同纳米尺度维度的碳纳米结构对锂硫电池的性能具有不同的影响规律。基于此,本文围绕高性能锂硫电池碳基硫宿主进行综述,分类综述了一维、二维、及多维复合碳材料在锂硫电池领域的应用及其性能,阐述不同维度碳基硫宿主对其电化学性能的影响规律,并对未来的研究方向进行了一定的展望。     

石墨烯应用于锂硫电池的研究进展

锂硫电池具有很高的理论放电比容量(1 675 mAh/g)和能量密度(2 600 Wh/kg),被认为是最具前景的新型电池之一。石墨烯具有优良的导电性和电化学性能,具有开阔的负载硫的表面和空间,是导电性差的硫黄和硫化锂的良好载体,为锂硫电池正极材料提供了新的研发平台。本文介绍了近年来石墨烯及其复合材料应用于锂硫电池中的研究进展,包括石墨烯或氧化石墨烯负载硫、杂原子掺杂石墨烯负载硫、石墨烯三维网格负载硫和石墨烯-多孔炭复合炭材料负载硫等4种石墨烯基-硫正极材料,概述了其锂硫电池的比容量、倍率性能和循环寿命等性能指标。从石墨烯基锂硫电池正极材料的设计和合成的角度,总结了不同微结构特征的石墨烯及其复合材料组装成锂硫电池的性能特点,并分析了材料组成和微结构对电池性能的影响机制。在总结的基础上展望了石墨烯应用于锂硫电池的发展方向。     

锂硫电池锂负极保护策略及研究进展

锂硫电池作为一种新型储能体系,具有高比容量(1675m A h/g)、高能量密度(2500W h/k g)以及原材料价格低廉、对环境友好等优势,研究其在电动汽车、无人机、便携式电子设备和智能电网等领域的应用具有重要意义。但锂硫电池的产业化道路仍面临重重阻碍,硫及其还原产物的绝缘性、多硫化物的穿梭效应和锂枝晶等严重影响了电池的性能。研究人员一直以来致力于解决硫的分散和中间反应物的穿梭,并已取得良好成效,但锂金属负极存在的问题仍限制了锂硫电池的长循环寿命。近年来,研究人员对锂负极的保护日益重视,并进行了积极广泛的探索,使锂硫电池的商业化应用又向前迈进了一步。     

锂硫电池硫正极材料研究进展

由化石燃料的大量使用导致的全球能源和环境问题日益严重,已对人们的生产和生活产生了明显的影响.开发利用储量丰富的清洁能源(如太阳能、水能和风能等)有望较好地解决全球能源和环境问题.由于这些清洁能源存在地域性、间歇性等特点,高效的能量转化和存储技术是实现清洁能源规模化利用的关键和基础.锂离子电池作为绿色环保的储能器件,已在手机、笔记本电脑、相机等便携电子产品中广泛使用.近年来,锂离子电池开始在电动汽车等动力电池领域得到应用.但是,由于其能量密度不够高,导致锂离子电池电动汽车续航短、充电频繁及购车成本高.由金属锂为负极和硫为正极组成的锂硫电池的能量密度(2600 Wh·kg-1)远高于目前广泛使用的锂离子电池.此外,硫正极材料具有储量丰富、毒性低、价格便宜、环境友好等突出优点.因此,锂硫电池被认为是当前最具研究前景的高能量密度二次电池之一.硫正极材料的本征导电性差、在充放电过程中存在较大的体积膨胀和收缩,储放锂过程中形成的多硫化锂易溶于电解液,使得锂硫电池的倍率性能、循环寿命和库伦效率等电化学性能离实际应用仍有较大距离.迄今为止,关于硫正极材料的研究工作,主要集中于如何提升其导电性、抑制或消除由多硫化锂的溶解引起的穿梭效应以及在反复的循环过程中保持电极材料微结构的稳定性等方面.相关研究表明,将硫与不同形貌的碳材料复合构筑成具有特殊微观结构的硫/碳复合正极材料可显著提高其导电性、抑制多硫化锂的穿梭效应和减缓储放锂前后的体积变化,进而改善倍率性能、循环稳定性和充放电效率等.此外,在硫正极材料中引入异质元素掺杂碳材料、金属氧化物和导电集合物均可通过化学吸附实现对易溶解多硫化锂的有效吸附.将上述多种改性方法结合也可使硫正极材料具有优异的电化学储锂性能.本文从锂硫电池的工作原理出发,总结了硫正极材料存在的主要问题,综述了近几年锂硫电池复合正极材料的研究进展,最后对锂硫电池正极材料的研究思路与发展趋势进行了分析和展望.     

锂硫电池硫正极材料研究进展

由化石燃料的大量使用导致的全球能源和环境问题日益严重,已对人们的生产和生活产生了明显的影响。开发利用储量丰富的清洁能源(如太阳能、水能和风能等)有望较好地解决全球能源和环境问题。由于这些清洁能源存在地域性、间歇性等特点,高效的能量转化和存储技术是实现清洁能源规模化利用的关键和基础。锂离子电池作为绿色环保的储能器件,已在手机、笔记本电脑、相机等便携电子产品中广泛使用。近年来,锂离子电池开始在电动汽车等动力电池领域得到应用。但是,由于其能量密度不够高,导致锂离子电池电动汽车续航短、充电频繁及购车成本高。由金属锂为负极和硫为正极组成的锂硫电池的能量密度(2 600 Wh·kg~(-1))远高于目前广泛使用的锂离子电池。此外,硫正极材料具有储量丰富、毒性低、价格便宜、环境友好等突出优点。因此,锂硫电池被认为是当前最具研究前景的高能量密度二次电池之一。硫正极材料的本征导电性差、在充放电过程中存在较大的体积膨胀和收缩,储放锂过程中形成的多硫化锂易溶于电解液,使得锂硫电池的倍率性能、循环寿命和库伦效率等电化学性能离实际应用仍有较大距离。迄今为止,关于硫正极材料的研究工作,主要集中于如何提升其导电性、抑制或消除由多硫化锂的溶解引起的穿梭效应以及在反复的循环过程中保持电极材料微结构的稳定性等方面。相关研究表明,将硫与不同形貌的碳材料复合构筑成具有特殊微观结构的硫/碳复合正极材料可显著提高其导电性、抑制多硫化锂的穿梭效应和减缓储放锂前后的体积变化,进而改善倍率性能、循环稳定性和充放电效率等。此外,在硫正极材料中引入异质元素掺杂碳材料、金属氧化物和导电集合物均可通过化学吸附实现对易溶解多硫化锂的有效吸附。将上述多种改性方法结合也可使硫正极材料具有优异的电化学储锂性能。本文从锂硫电池的工作原理出发,总结了硫正极材料存在的主要问题,综述了近几年锂硫电池复合正极材料的研究进展,最后对锂硫电池正极材料的研究思路与发展趋势进行了分析和展望。     

MOFs及衍生复合材料在锂硫电池中的设计应用

在能源危机与环境问题日益凸显的背景下,电化学储能技术得到了迅速发展。在“超越锂”储能领域的竞争者中,锂硫电池(Li-S)因其具有高理论比容量、高质量能量密度并且环境友好、价格低廉等优点,成为最有前途的新储能技术。但是,锂硫电池的发展仍存在一些瓶颈问题需要解决,例如正极材料导电性能差、多硫化物穿梭效应及在充放电过程中电极体积膨胀等。作为锂硫电池的关键组成部分,电极和隔膜材料的设计和制备对解决这些问题及电池整体性能提升起到了重要的作用。金属有机骨架(MOFs)及衍生的复合材料作为锂硫电池电极或隔膜修饰材料,具有质量轻、电子和离子传导性好、孔道丰富和活性位点均匀分布等优势。此外,这类复合材料还具备形貌和组分可控、来源丰富和孔径可调等特性,从而便于机制研究。本文全面介绍了锂硫电池组成、工作原理并综述了近几年MOFs及衍生复合材料在锂硫电池中的研究进展,重点讨论了其在正极材料和隔膜材料中的应用,并对未来该材料在锂硫电池研究方向上的前景和突破进行了展望。      

锂硫电池柔性正极材料研究进展

随着化石能源的日渐枯竭、能源危机和环境问题的日益突出,开发环境友好的二次电池能源体系迫在眉睫。锂硫电池作为一种新型的储能电池,其理论比容量高达1 675 mAh/g,质量密度可达2 600 Wh/kg,且原材料来源广、成本低等优点,使得其有望代替锂离子电池成为下一代理想的能源电池。近年来,可穿戴电子设备、智能纺织品的出现,对储能电池提出了更高的要求—柔性,因此开发柔性锂硫电池已经成为研究热点。作为锂硫电池的重要组成部分,柔性正极材料的研究和制备对柔性锂硫电池系统的开发至关重要。从锂硫电池柔性正极基体材料入手,对碳材料、导电聚合物材料和新兴的MOF材料等3个方面进行了分类总结,详细阐述了各自制备方法及对柔性正极性能影响。碳材料高的导电性和多孔结构设计、导电聚合物和MOF材料对多硫化物优异的化学吸附作用,均有助于抑制多硫化物的"穿梭效应",提升柔性锂硫电池的长循环电化学稳定性能。最后分析了现有锂硫电池柔性正极材料存在的缺陷与问题,对未来发展方向做出了展望。这将为开发新型的锂硫电池用柔性正极材料提供指导,同时为其它二次电池柔性正极材料开发过程中的共性问题提供实验和理论依据。     

面向锂硫电池的高负载量碳硫复合正极材料研究进展

在近20多年的发展过程中,锂离子电池已经越来越接近于其理论能量密度的极限,并且随着化石能源消耗和电动车需求量的增加,锂离子电池已经不能满足于社会的需要,寻找可替代的绿色新能源也变得愈发重要。其中,锂硫电池是最有希望代替锂离子电池,成为下一代电化学储能系统的电池之一。由于硫的无毒性、低成本和高的能量密度等优势,使得锂硫电池吸引了研究者们的广泛关注。硫作为锂硫电池中非常重要的一部分——正极材料,对于电池的循环寿命、循环稳定性、能量密度、库伦效率等方面产生了非常重要的影响。但是锂硫电池中存在的关键问题亦限制了其实际应用,例如硫的导电性差、多硫化物中间体的"穿梭效应"、较低的硫负载量、大的体积膨胀以及复杂的内部反应机理等。为了提高锂硫电池整体的性能,设计具有高的比表面积、优越的导电性以及更多的活性位点的基底材料来负载硫变得越来越重要。为解决这些问题,研究者们设计了各种不同材料来进行硫的负载,例如碳-硫复合材料、金属氧化物-硫复合材料、聚合物-硫复合材料等。其中由于碳材料具有密度低、比表面积大、导电性好、结构多样、易于加工制备和价格低廉等优点,引起了研究者们的广泛关注,因此研究者们相继实现了用一维、二维以及三维等不同结构的碳材料来负载硫,使得锂硫电池的循环寿命、循环稳定性和库伦效率得到了有效的提高。虽然在循环寿命等方面,研究者们做出了很大的贡献,但是硫的负载量却有限,从而导致电池整体的能量密度仍然很低。从商业化的角度来看,电池能量密度的高低才是研究者们关注的重点,因此研究者们在提高其性能的同时,也在不断地提高硫的负载量,以求达到更高的能量密度。本文主要从四个方面进行了相关总结:首先,概述了锂硫电池最新发展状况;其次,概要介绍了锂硫电池中存在的反应机理和阻碍锂硫电池发展的主要问题;再次,重点总结了提高锂硫电池的性能和载硫量方面的研究进展,并简单介绍了面载量、面容量和电解液与硫的比值对电池整体性能的影响;最后,总结和展望了锂硫电池未来可能的发展方向。     

Metal Coordinated Polymer as Three-Dimensional Network Binder for High Sulfur Loading Cathode of Lithium–Sulfur Battery

The construction of high sulfur (S) loading cathode is one of the critical parameters to obtain lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries with high energy density, but the slow redox reaction rate of high S loading cathode limits the development process. In this paper, a metal coordinated polymer-based three-dimensional network binder, which can improve the reaction rate and stability of S electrode. Compared with traditional linear polymer binders, the metal coordinated polymer binder can not only increase the load amount of S through the three-dimensional cross-linking, but also promote the interconversion reactions between S and lithium sulfide (Li₂S), avoiding the passivation of electrode and improving the stability of the positive electrode. At an S load of 4–5 mg cm⁻² and an E/S ratio of 5.5 µL mg⁻¹, the discharged voltage in the second platform is 2.04 V and the initial capacity is 938 mA h g⁻¹ with metal coordinated polymer binder. Moreover, the capacity retention rate approaches 87% after 100 cycles. In comparison, the discharged voltage in the second platform is lost and the initial capacity is 347 mA h g⁻¹ with PVDF binder. It demonstrates the advanced properties of metal-coordinated polymer binders for improving the performance of Li–S batteries.     

A Revolution in Electrodes: Recent Progress in Rechargeable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

As a promising candidate for future batteries, the lithium–sulfur battery is gaining increasing interest due to its high capacity and energy density. However, over the years, lithium–sulfur batteries have been plagued by fading capacities and the low Coulombic efficiency derived from its unique electrochemical behavior, which involves solid–liquid transition reactions. Moreover, lithium–sulfur batteries employ metallic lithium as the anode, which engenders safety vulnerability of the battery. The electrodes play a pivotal role in the performance of lithium–sulfur batteries. A leap forward in progress of lithium–sulfur batteries is always accompanied by a revolution in the electrode technology. In this review, recent progress in rechargeable lithium–sulfur batteries is summarized in accordance with the evolution of the electrodes, including the diversified cathode design and burgeoning metallic‐lithium‐free anodes. Although the way toward application has still many challenges associated, recent progress in lithium–sulfur battery technology still paints an encouraging picture of a revolution in rechargeable batteries.     

Atomic Interlamellar Ion Path in High Sulfur Content Lithium‐Montmorillonite Host Enables High‐Rate and Stable Lithium–Sulfur Battery

Fast lithium ion transport with a high current density is critical for thick sulfur cathodes, stemming mainly from the difficulties in creating effective lithium ion pathways in high sulfur content electrodes. To develop a high‐rate cathode for lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries, extenuation of the lithium ion diffusion barrier in thick electrodes is potentially straightforward. Here, a phyllosilicate material with a large interlamellar distance is demonstrated in high‐rate cathodes as high sulfur loading. The interlayer space (≈1.396 nm) incorporated into a low lithium ion diffusion barrier (0.155 eV) significantly facilitates lithium ion diffusion within the entire sulfur cathode, and gives rise to remarkable nearly sulfur loading‐independent cell performances. When combined with 80% sulfur contents, the electrodes achieve a high capacity of 865 mAh g^?1 at 1 mA cm^?2 and a retention of 345 mAh g^?1 at a high discharging/charging rate of 15 mA cm^?2, with a sulfur loading up to 4 mg. This strategy represents a major advance in high‐rate Li–S batteries via the construction of fast ions transfer paths toward real‐life applications, and contributes to the research community for the fundamental mechanism study of loading‐independent electrode systems.     

The Regulating Role of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene in Lithium‐Ion and Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

The ever‐increasing demands for batteries with high energy densities to power the portable electronics with increased power consumption and to advance vehicle electrification and grid energy storage have propelled lithium battery technology to a position of tremendous importance. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, known with many appealing properties, are investigated intensely for improving the performance of lithium‐ion (Li‐ion) and lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries. However, a general and objective understanding of their actual role in Li‐ion and Li–S batteries is lacking. It is recognized that CNTs and graphene are not appropriate active lithium storage materials, but are more like a regulator: they do not electrochemically react with lithium ions and electrons, but serve to regulate the lithium storage behavior of a specific electroactive material and increase the range of applications of a lithium battery. First, metrics for the evaluation of lithium batteries are discussed, based on which the regulating role of CNTs and graphene in Li‐ion and Li–S batteries is comprehensively considered from fundamental electrochemical reactions to electrode structure and integral cell design. Finally, perspectives on how CNTs and graphene can further contribute to the development of lithium batteries are presented.     

Greatly Improved Conductivity of Double‐Chain Polymer Network Binder for High Sulfur Loading Lithium–Sulfur Batteries with a Low Electrolyte/Sulfur Ratio

Binders have been considered to play a key role in realizing high‐energy‐density lithium–sulfur batteries. However, the accompanying problems of limited conductivity and inferior affinity of soluble polysulfide intermediates bring down their comprehensive performance for practical applications. Herein, the synthesis of a novel double‐chain polymer network (DCP) binder by polymerizing 4,4′‐biphenyldisulfonic acid connected pyrrole monomer onto viscous sodium carboxymethyl cellulose matrix, yielding a primary crystal structure is reported. Consequently, the resulted binder enables superior rate performance from 0.2 C (1326.9 mAh g^?1) to 4 C (701.4 mAh g^?1). Moreover, a high sulfur loading of 9.8 mg cm^?2 and a low electrolyte/sulfur ratio (5:1, µL mg^?1) are achieved, exhibiting a high area capacity of 9.2 mAh cm^?2. In situ X‐ray diffraction analysis is conducted to monitor the structural modifications of the cathode, confirming the occurrence of sulfur reduction/recrystallization during charge–discharge process. In addition, in situ UV–vis measurements demonstrate that DCP binder impedes the polysulfide migration, thereby giving rise to high capacity retention for 400 cycles.     

Hybrid of spinel zinc-cobalt oxide nanospheres combined with nitrogen-containing carbon nanofibers as advanced electrocatalyst for redox reaction in lithium/polysulfides batteries

The polysulfides shuttle effect and torpid kinetic are of the crucial barriers for lithium/sulfur batteries. Herein, nitrogen-containing carbon nanofibers (NCFs) combined with spinel zinc-cobalt oxide (ZCO) nanospheres hybrid (denoted as ZCONCFs) were designed as membrane electrode containing Li₂S₆ catholyte for lithium/polysulfides batteries, which promote electrochemical performance by suppressing the shuttle effect and enhancing the redox kinetics of lithium polysulfides. The conductive NCFs provide fast electronic transport and anchored ZCO nanospheres possess a strong affinity to sulfur species, which could effectively anchor lithium polysulfides, boost their redox reaction catalytically-accelerate the reversible soluble/insoluble phases conversion process, and greatly improve the utilization of active material. The results show that ZCONCFs membrane electrode with 5 mg sulfur loading exhibited stability cycling capacity and improved reaction kinetics, which delivered a high initial capacity of 1160 mAh g^?1 at 0.2C and sustain a capacity of 830 mAh g^?1 after 300 cycles. The cell with ZCONCFs exhibits 8.22 mAh under the sulfur loading of 10 mg and the capacity decay rate is 0.11% per cycle after 150 cycles. This effective method could significantly improve the application capacity of lithium/sulfur batteries.     

Stabilizing Lithium–Sulfur Batteries through Control of Sulfur Aggregation and Polysulfide Dissolution

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries are investigated intensively as a promising large‐scale energy storage system owing to their high theoretical energy density. However, the application of Li–S batteries is prevented by a series of primary problems, including low electronic conductivity, volumetric fluctuation, poor loading of sulfur, and shuttle effect caused by soluble lithium polysulfides. Here, a novel composite structure of sulfur nanoparticles attached to porous‐carbon nanotube (p‐CNT) encapsulated by hollow MnO₂ nanoflakes film to form p‐CNT@Void@MnO₂/S composite structures is reported. Benefiting from p‐CNTs and sponge‐like MnO₂ nanoflake film, p‐CNT@Void@MnO₂/S provides highly efficient pathways for the fast electron/ion transfer, fixes sulfur and Li₂S aggregation efficiently, and prevents polysulfide dissolution during cycling. Besides, the additional void inside p‐CNT@Void@MnO₂/S composite structure provides sufficient free space for the expansion of encapsulated sulfur nanoparticles. The special material composition and structural design of p‐CNT@Void@MnO₂/S composite structure with a high sulfur content endow the composite high capacity, high Coulombic efficiency, and an excellent cycling stability. The capacity of p‐CNT@Void@MnO₂/S electrode is ≈599.1 mA h g^?1 for the fourth cycle and ≈526.1 mA h g^?1 after 100 cycles, corresponding to a capacity retention of ≈87.8% at a high current density of 1.0 C.     

Recent Advances in Hollow Porous Carbon Materials for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries are considered as one of the most potential next‐generation rechargeable batteries due to their high theoretical energy density. However, some critical issues, such as low capacity, poor cycling stability, and safety concerns, must be solved before Li–S batteries can be used practically. During the past decade, tremendous efforts have been devoted to the design and synthesis of electrode materials. Benefiting from their tunable structural parameters, hollow porous carbon materials (HPCM) remarkably enhance the performances of both sulfur cathodes and lithium anodes, promoting the development of high‐performance Li–S batteries. Here, together with the templated synthesis of HPCM, recent progresses of Li–S batteries based on HPCM are reviewed. Several important issues in Li–S batteries, including sulfur loading, polysulfide entrapping, and Li metal protection, are discussed, followed by a summary on recent research on HPCM‐based sulfur cathodes, modified separators, and lithium anodes. After the discussion on emerging technical obstacles toward high‐energy Li–S batteries, prospects for the future directions of HPCM research in the field of Li–S batteries are also proposed.     

Rational Design of Statically and Dynamically Stable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries with High Sulfur Loading and Low Electrolyte/Sulfur Ratio

The primary challenge with lithium–sulfur battery research is the design of sulfur cathodes that exhibit high electrochemical efficiency and stability while keeping the sulfur content and loading high and the electrolyte/sulfur ratio low. With a systematic investigation, a novel graphene/cotton‐carbon cathode is presented here that enables sulfur loading and content as high as 46 mg cm^?2 and 70 wt% with an electrolyte/sulfur ratio of as low as only 5. The graphene/cotton‐carbon cathodes deliver peak capacities of 926 and 765 mA h g^?1, respectively, at C/10 and C/5 rates, which translate into high areal, gravimetric, and volumetric capacities of, respectively, 43 and 35 mA h cm^?2, 648 and 536 mA h g^?1, and 1067 and 881 mA h cm^?3 with a stable cyclability. They also exhibit superior cell‐storage capability with 95% capacity‐retention, a low self‐discharge constant of just 0.0012 per day, and stable poststorage cyclability after storing over a long period of six months. This work demonstrates a viable approach to develop lithium–sulfur batteries with practical energy densities exceeding that of lithium‐ion batteries.