Comments on Shweder's "Illusory correlation and the MMPI controversy."

R. A. Shweder's (see record 1978-20145-001) 1st principal-component factor loadings are substantially correlated with the proportion of items keyed for true and socially desirable responses in the MMPI scales that he investigated, and it is suggested that the judgments of similarity and dissimilarity that he obtained were based on social desirability considerations. It is also shown that although there is a preexisting conceptual scheme that is widely shared regarding what is desirable and undesirable in the way of personality characteristics, differences in the degree to which individuals agree with the cultural norms of social desirability have little relationship to individual differences in social desirability responding to MMPI items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developing a Biodata Measure and Situational Judgment Inventory as Predictors of College Student Performance.

This article describes the development and validation of a biographical data (biodata) measure and situational judgment inventory (SJI) as useful predictors of broadly defined college student performance outcomes. These measures provided incremental validity when considered in combination with standardized college-entrance tests (i.e., SAT/ACT) and a measure of Big Five personality constructs. Racial subgroup mean differences were much smaller on the biodata and SJI measures than on the standardized tests and college grade point average. Female students tended to outperform male students on most predictors and outcomes with the exception of the SAT/ACT. The biodata and SJI measures show promise for student development contexts and for selecting students on a wide range of outcomes with reduced adverse impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability, item-response time, and item significance.

Pathological personality item responses have been shown to relate to the social desirability scale values of test items. It was hypothesized that both social desirability and pathological item-response frequency might vary as a function of the time permitted to answer test items. Two groups of Ss were administered the items of the Maslow, Birch, Honigman, McGrath, Plason, and Stein Security-Insecurity Inventory. Social desirability scale values for the items were established. Maximal reading time required for each item was also determined, and both groups were permitted to view each item for the same established length of time. 1 group was allowed 2 sec., the other group 10 sec. for each response. It was observed that time pressure reduced the number of pathological item responses, and that items scaled either high or low in social desirability tended to be answered in the socially desirable direction under time pressure. Females generally provided more critical or pathological item responses than did males. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traditional tests and job simulations: Minority and majority performance and test validities.

Performance of 565 minority and 414 majority job applicants on traditional paper-and-pencil tests and on a telephone simulation that measured similar constructs was assessed. Models of the measurement characteristics of these 2 test batteries indicated larger subgroup mean differences on the traditional tests than on the simulation. Correlations between traditional tests were lower in the majority sample than in the minority sample, and the variance of the minority candidates' scores on the traditional tests was much larger than the variance of majority applicants' scores on the same measures. The validity of the simulation was lower than the validity of the traditional tests. This study replicates previous laboratory research that has indicated smaller subgroup differences on simulations than on paper-and-pencil tests and extends this research by providing evidence of the relative validity of these 2 types of measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between probability of item endorsement and Social Desirability scale value for high and low groups on Edwards' SD scale.

The SD scale and a set of 150 items from the EPPS were administered to 237 college students. Ss were divided into 3 groups on the basis of their scores on the SD scale. For each group the regression line of probability of endorsement on social desirability scale values of the EPPS items was obtained. The form of the regression lines was that predicted by the social desirability interpretation of the SD scale, rather than that predicted by the acquiescence interpretaton. Contrary to the acquiescence interpretation, the mean probability of a True response to the EPPS items was not greater for the Low SD group than for the High SD group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A factor analysis of experimental social desirability and response set scales.

Intercorrelations between 19 response set scales, based upon the scores of 110 students, were factor analyzed and the factors rotated orthogonally. Edwards' SD scale and 6 experimental social desirability scales had their highest loadings on the 1st factor. 3 scales containing neutral items in which the probability of a True response to the items varied between scales were found to have their highest loadings on 3 different factors. Scales designed to measure the tendency to give deviant True responses to items with socially undesirable scale values, to items with socially desirable scale values, and to items with neural scale values were found to have their highest loadings on 3 different factors. The tendency to give deviant True responses to items with socially undesirable scale values was found to be related to the tendency to give deviant False responses to items with socially desirable scale values. The tendency to mark items as doubtful and the tendency to answer items marked doubtful as True were identified as 2 factors unrelated to social desirability tendencies. (31 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between culture and responses to biodata employment items.

The relationship between Black–White cultural value differences and responses to biodata employment items was investigated. Black and White college students were found to differ in endorsement of cultural values pertaining to basic human nature, the relationship between the individual and nature, temporal focus, and interpersonal relations. Using the loglinear approach suggested by B. F. Green et al (see record 1990-02999-001), the researchers found that over one quarter of the biodata employment items they examined exhibited differential item functioning (DIF) between racial subgroups. Although cultural values of the respondent were related to biodata response option selection, only limited evidence was found for the hypothesis that cultural values are associated with the observed differences in Black–White response choices. Recommendations regarding the further investigation of cultural influences on DIF are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reducing Voluntary, Avoidable Turnover Through Selection.

The authors investigated the efficacy of several variables used to predict voluntary, organizationally avoidable turnover even before the employee is hired. Analyses conducted on applicant data collected in 2 separate organizations (N = 445) confirmed that biodata, clear-purpose attitudes and intentions, and disguised-purpose dispositional retention scales predicted voluntary, avoidable turnover (rs ranged from -.16 to -.22, R = .37, adjusted R = .33). Results also revealed that biodata scales and disguised-purpose retention scales added incremental validity, whereas clear-purpose retention scales did not explain significant incremental variance in turnover beyond what was explained by biodata and disguised-purpose scales. Furthermore, disparate impact (subgroup differences on race, sex, and age) was consistently small (average d = 0.12 when the majority group scored higher than the minority group). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of factors contributing to a reduction in subgroup differences on a constructed-response paper-and-pencil test of scholastic achievement.

The authors investigated subgroup differences on a multiple-choice and constructed-response test of scholastic achievement in a sample of 197 African American and 258 White test takers. Although both groups had lower mean scores on the constructed-response test, the results showed a 39% reduction in subgroup differences compared with the multiple-choice test. The results demonstrate that the lower subgroup differences were explained by more favorable test perceptions for African Americans on the constructed-response test. In addition, the two test formats displayed comparable levels of criterion-related validity. The results suggest that the constructed-response test format may be a viable alternative to the traditional multiple-choice test format in efforts to simultaneously use valid predictors of performance and minimize subgroup differences in high-stakes testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability and responses to items from three MMPI scales: D, Sc, and K.

For random samples of 25 D and 32 Sc items, and for 29 of the 30 K items, ratings of social desirability were correlated with the probabilities that the items would be endorsed when the MMPI was used as a personality test (based on proportion of a college student sample actually endorsing each item). The correlations were .82 and .89 for the D and Sc items respectively. For the K-scale items, correlations of social desirability were computed with endorsement probabilities from a "typical college sample" (r = .50), and "Average-K" group (r = .38), and a "high-K" group (r = .66). "The results were interpreted as demonstrating the validity of K as a measure of the set to respond to items in terms of their social desirability." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of a self-report measure of somatic health

The primary purpose was to assess the validity of a new self-report inventory of general somatic health status. In addition, we sought to examine the influence of social desirability and negative affectivity on health reports and to learn whether asking respondents to report concrete, memorable aspects of illness episodes such as seeing a doctor or staying home in bed for all or most of a day would enhance validity. The somatic component of the Cornell Medical Index was used as a criterion measure of health status because that Index has been shown to reflect medical records with great accuracy. Scores on the new health inventory correlated highly with the Cornell somatic scores, and this relationship was independent of negative affectivity and social desirability. The addition of the "concrete, memorable" aspects of illness accounted for no additional variance in the Cornell Index somatic scores beyond that accounted for by mere reporting of the presence of the symptom or illness. This study offers evidence supporting the validity of the Inventory of Health Status as a predictor of somatic health independent of social desirability and negative affectivity and also indicates that a simple indication of whether the patient had the symptoms is sufficient.     

The relationship between social desirability and internal consistency of personality scales.

3 hypotheses concerning the relationships between psychometric characteristics of 61 personality scales were tested. A measure of internal consistency (Kuder-Richardson Formula 21) was found to be positively correlated (.62) with the degree of imbalance in the social desirability keying of the scales. Internal consistency was also negatively correlated (-.46) with the proportion of neutral items in the scales. The mean probability of a keyed response to the items in a scale was positively correlated (.83) with the proportion of items keyed for socially desirable responses. These results are consistent with predictions based upon social desirability considerations. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of cytotoxic entorhinal lesions and electrolytic medial septal lesions on the acquisition and retention of a spatial working memory task

This study assesses how social desirability affects responses in clinical self-report inventories. Six hundred items gathered from four normal personality questionnaires were adapted to devise a pre-experimental personality questionnaire (pre-EMHQ). Results obtained from administering Ko's Mental Health Questionnaire (KMHQ) and the pre-EMHQ to separate samples were the proportion of individuals answering "true" to each item (i.e., P(t)) and the social desirability scale value (i.e., SDSV) of each item. The Experimental Mental Health Questionnaire (EMHQ) was established from the pre-EMHQ by closely matching the P(t)s and the SDSVs of the two questionnaires. Administering the KMHQ and the EMHQ concurrently to another sample provided results for factor analysis and other statistical analyses. The SDSVs and the P(t)s for each of the KMHQ items certainly displayed a linearly increasing relation. The two sets of corresponding subscales also correlated significantly. By applying the polynomial regression analysis, the tendency to score might be expressed as a quadratic function of SDSVs. Two iterative principal-factor analyses of the two sets of subscales each resulted in two factors, and Factor 1 is similar in both the KMHQ and the EMHQ. In brief, social desirability plays a critical role in affecting responses in a clinical self-report inventory. The factors involved and suggestions proposed will be of value for further research.     

Social desirability corrections in personality measurement: Issues of applicant comparison and construct validity.

Research investigating the validity of personality measures has established these measures as useful selection tools. However, personality measures are vulnerable to response distortion leading to employer concerns about the influence of applicant faking, with specific concerns about the influence of social desirability. A traditional method used to circumvent this is the application of a correction based on a social desirability scale score. This study sought to evaluate whether such corrections are effective tools for removing the influence of intentional distortion. A within-subjects design facilitated comparisons between honest, faked, and corrected scores. The goal was to evaluate whether a social desirability correction allows one to approximate an individual's honest score. The results suggest that a social desirability correction is ineffective and fails to produce a corrected score that approximates an honest score. Results are interpreted with respect to applicant comparison and construct validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

White norms and black MMPIs: A prescription for discrimination?

Indicates distinctive differences between the MMPI scores of blacks and whites. Differences in social desirability ratings of items and disproportionate representation of black-favored items on the key scales partially account for these findings. Education, residence, and cultural separation influence the degree of difference found. However, whether normal or institutionalized, blacks generally obtain higher scores than whites on the Validity, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania scales. Item and factor analyses reveal that these differences represent differences between blacks and whites in values, perceptions, and expectations, rather than differences in level of adjustment. The principal value exhibited by blacks has been labeled distrust of society or social cynicism. Preliminary data is presented from the author's study of white (n = 300) and black (n = 487) job applicants and psychiatric patients. Results suggest that (a) prospective black policemen and hospital attendents are disadvantaged when the MMPI is used for screening and (b) black psychiatric patients are less likely than whites to be diagnosed accurately by the MMPI. Various solutions to this problem are discussed; the most satisfactory approach appears to be construction of an MMPI based on black norms. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Item and response characteristics in attitude and personality measurement: A reaction to L. G. Rorer's "The great response-style myth."

However defined, response style is not a myth. Responses to personality items are the result of, among other things, (1) item content; (2) social desirability of this content; (3) form in which this content is stated, the proportion of each form of statement in an inventory; (4) the desire to dissimulate with respect to the content; and (5) response style. Responses to form of statement—reversed items—conform perfectly to 1 definition of response bias. The differences in correlational and other characteristics of sets of reversed items are a major cause for the confounding and confusion in the interpretation of studies of social desirability and acquiescence. The great need is for external validation studies in relation to the factors that influence personality-item responses. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of the discriminant validity of the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale.

Examined the discriminant validity of D. Watson and R. Friend's Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SAD) using the SAD, M. Patterson's Interpersonal Anxiety (IA) scale, and scales measuring affiliation, extroversion, and social desirability. Previous studies had shown high correlations between the SAD and affiliation (r = -.76), IA and extroversion (r = -.66), and an interest correlation of approximately .70 between SAD, IA, affiliation, and extroversion. Results for 209 Ss on the 5 tests indicate 3 factors: (a) social approach-avoidance (majority of SAD, affiliation, and extroversion items); (b) social anxiety (1/2 the IA scale items and the remaining SAD items); and (c) social desirability. Results indicate that the SAD measures primarily social approach-avoidance and secondarily social anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability as a confounding variable in the reversed item approach to studying acquiescence in the MMPI.

Obtained social desirability ratings for 44 Ss for 95 MMPI items and their reversals. These social desirability ratings enabled .53 of the response patterns to the original items and their reversals to be predicted for the average S. The proportion predicted correctly was higher for items and reversals with social desirability ratings far from the neutral point than for those with ratings near the neutral point. Double agreement and double disagreement consistent with the social desirability ratings of the original items and their reversals might be a response on the basis of social desirability rather than a tendencey to agree or disagree. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The measurement of psychological androgyny: an extended replication

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the recently developed measure for psychological androgyny, was administered to 344 middle-Tennessee high school and university students. The BSRS's reliability coefficients and mean scores were very similar to those reported earlier for California junior college and university students, respectively. The present scoring patterns for the BSRI remained unchanged with the introduction of the four "familial context" variables of sex of Ss' siblings, sex of Ss' nearest-in-age sibling, parent whom the Ss considered emotionally warmest, and parent whom the Ss would most prefer to be like. Contrary to Bem's original findings, the present results with the BSRI suggested that Ss' responses to the measure may be affected by the social desirability phenomenon. Moreover, scores on the BSRI did not correlate consistently or highly with those presently obtained with a symbolic sex-role measure and a verbal sex-role scale. This lack of construct validity has been reported previously in at least two other studies. Though apparently reliable, the validity of the BSI remains problematic.     

Social desirability scale values of personal concepts.

The distribution of scale values of 1647 items scaled for social desirability was presented. The biomodality of the distribution of scale values for the items was noted and interpreted as showing that social desirability judgments of personal concepts are infrequently judged as neutral and tend to be either undesirable or desirable. Presentation of these items as a personality test showed the typical high correlation between social desirability scale values and frequency of endorsement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)