Examining pre‐service teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge as evolving knowledge domains: A longitudinal approach

The aim of this study is to outline the development and changes in pre‐service teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) assessments during the first 3 years in teacher education. Specifically, research was conducted at three measurement points over a 3‐year teacher education period. The target group consisted of pre‐service teachers (N = 148) from three Finnish universities. Results indicate a growth in confidence related to all TPACK areas during the research period. The strongest gains were in pedagogical content knowledge. In addition, the gains were larger in other areas related to pedagogical knowledge than areas related to technology or content knowledge. In areas without pedagogical knowledge, the changes were more moderate. In the discussion section, recommendations are provided on the potential of longitudinal use of the TPACK model to study and improve the development of pre‐service teachers' TPACK.     

Examining the technological pedagogical content knowledge of Singapore pre‐service teachers with a large‐scale survey

This paper examined the profile of Singaporean pre‐service teachers in terms of their technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). A total of 1185 pre‐service teachers were studied with a TPACK survey. An exploratory factor analysis found five distinctive constructs: technological knowledge, content knowledge, knowledge of pedagogy, knowledge of teaching with technology and knowledge from critical reflection. The participants of this study did not make conceptual distinctions between TPACK constructs such as technological content knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge. There were some differences in their TPACK perceptions by gender. However, the influence of age and teaching level were not strong. The methodological and theoretical implications for the development of TPACK surveys were discussed.     

Understanding preservice teachers' technology use through TPACK framework

This study discusses preservice teachers' achievement barriers to technology integration, using principles of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) as an evaluative framework. Technology‐capable participants each freely chose a content area to comprise project. Data analysis based on interactions among core components of TPACK revealed that participants struggled with developing new knowledge. Lack of pedagogical experience limited development of appropriate technology integration approaches. Creating new knowledge bases based on different teaching components can be difficult for preservice teachers because it requires a deep understanding of core knowledge and interpretation of the teaching context and its dynamics. Developing pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is an important factor in overall technology integration; teachers must make it a priority to acquire PCK before integrating technology. In preservice teacher education, PCK development must be supported with actual teaching experience. We believe that the results of the study may provide valuable insight with respect to proper focus on technology integration and recognizing limitations and challenges within TPACK principles to both those who teach technology integration and those who design TPACK‐based activities.     

Technological pedagogical content knowledge – a review of the literature

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) has been introduced as a conceptual framework for the knowledge base teachers need to effectively teach with technology. The framework stems from the notion that technology integration in a specific educational context benefits from a careful alignment of content, pedagogy and the potential of technology, and that teachers who want to integrate technology in their teaching practice therefore need to be competent in all three domains. This study is a systematic literature review about TPACK of 55 peer‐reviewed journal articles (and one book chapter), published between 2005 and 2011. The purpose of the review was to investigate the theoretical basis and the practical use of TPACK. Findings showed different understandings of TPACK and of technological knowledge. Implications of these different views impacted the way TPACK was measured. Notions about TPACK in subject domains were hardly found in the studies selected for this review. Teacher knowledge (TPACK) and beliefs about pedagogy and technology are intertwined. Both determine whether a teacher decides to teach with technology. Active involvement in (re)design and enactment of technology‐enhanced lessons was found as a promising strategy for the development of TPACK in (student‐)teachers. Future directions for research are discussed.     

Modeling primary school pre-service teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for meaningful learning with information and communication technology (ICT)

Within the field of educational technology, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) has been theorized as a seven-factor construct to describe teacher’s integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in their teaching. However, this framework has yet to be successfully validated through survey instruments. This paper examines the construct validity of a TPACK survey that was contextualized for the pedagogical approaches employed in a 12-week ICT course designed with reference to the TPACK framework for Singaporean primary school pre-service teachers. Using this framework, the researchers were able to uncover five of the seven TPACK constructs which were a better model fit as compared with several extant studies of TPACK surveys. Using these results, pre and post-course structural equation models were constructed to explain the relationships amongst the different constructs of teachers’ TPACK perceptions. It was found that pedagogical knowledge had a direct impact on TPACK at the beginning of the course. As teachers made connections between their technological knowledge and pedagogical knowledge to form technological pedagogical knowledge during the course, the direct relation between pedagogical knowledge and TPACK became insignificant where as the relations between pedagogical knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical knowledge and TPACK were strengthened. The comparison between the pre and post-course models also revealed that the pre-service teachers’ perceived relations between content knowledge and TPACK changes from insignificant to significant. The implications of these findings and suggestions to improve the construct validation of the TPACK framework are discussed in this paper.     

Exploring the TPACK of Taiwanese elementary mathematics and science teachers with respect to use of interactive whiteboards

There has been an increasing tendency to enhance teachers’ ability to apply educational technology. Few researchers have investigated with the relationships between the use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs) and the impact on the technological pedagogical and content knowledge (TPACK) of teachers. The purposes of the study were to examine Taiwanese elementary mathematics and science teachers’ TPACK with respect to current use of IWBs. Associations between in-service teachers’ TPACK and other factors were also examined. The IWB-based TPACK questionnaire was developed and validated in an elementary school context. The results indicated that there were significant differences in the TPACK of elementary teachers who used IWBs compared to teachers who did not use IWBs. Furthermore, elementary science teachers demonstrated significantly higher TPACK than elementary mathematics teachers. No significant difference was found in teachers’ TPACK according to gender. The results also showed that teachers’ TPACK differed significantly on the basis of teachers’ varying amounts of teaching experience. Teachers who had more years of teaching experience demonstrated significantly higher TPACK than did teachers who had fewer years of teaching experience. The research implications of this study are provided along with suggestions.     

When knowing is believing: A multi‐trait analysis of self‐reported TPCK

In an effort to understand teachers' technology use, recent scholarship has explored the idea of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK or TPACK). Many studies have used self‐reports to measure this knowledge (SR TPCK). Several studies have examined the construct validity of these assessments by analysing the internal relationships of the knowledge domains, but little attention has been paid to how SR TPCK relates to external criteria. We tackled this question of discriminant validity by reanalysing 2 data sets. We used correlation and multiple regression analyses to explore whether conceptually related constructs explain any variance in participants' SR TPCK. In Study 1, we applied this strategy to German pre‐service teachers using technology use, attitudinal variables, and objective measures of teachers' knowledge of technology and pedagogy as external criteria. In Study 2, we examined measures of technology knowledge, experience, and pro‐technology beliefs for in‐service teachers in the United States. Across both studies, a sizeable amount of the variance in SR TPCK is explained by teachers' prior technology use and pro‐technology attitudes. In contrast, fact‐based tests of technology and pedagogy are distinct from SR TPCK. We discuss implications for these findings and argue that researchers should gather complementary measures in concert.     

Using wikis and collaborative learning for science teachers' professional development

Wiki bears great potential to transform learning and instruction by scaffolding personal and social constructivism. Past studies have shown that proper application of wiki benefits both students and teachers; however, few studies have integrated wiki and collaborative learning to examine the growth of science teachers' Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK). This study introduced a wiki‐based TPACK growth model and examined nine elementary and middle science teachers' knowledge growth in a graduate‐level course. Data sources included reflective journals, wiki data and interviews. Results showed that with wiki, science teachers learned to design more understandable and lively science teaching content, and they collaboratively generated creative instructional strategies. Furthermore, wiki and collaborative learning helped in‐service teachers exchange and elaborate ideas related to the development of TPACK. Implications, suggestions and future research directions were put forward regarding wiki, TPACK and in‐service teachers' professional development.     

Arithmetical and algebraic types of reasoning used by pre‐service teachers in a problem‐solving context

Abstract

The problem concerning the linkage between arithmetic teaching and algebra teaching involves the relationship that the instructor—or the pre‐service teacher—inherently adopts towards these two fields, especially because this relationship has an impact on the teaching choices that he or she will eventually make when introducing algebra. An experiment to test whether pre‐service teachers manage to establish a dialectic between these two types of reasoning in the context of problem solving was conducted with three groups of pre‐service teachers (164 participants). A series of interviews conducted with several participants, primarily in dyads, highlight the gap that exists between the modes of reasoning deployed by participants in each group.     

Web-based Assessment and Test Analyses (WATA) system: development and evaluation

This study introduces the development of a Web‐based assessment system, the Web‐based Assessment and Test Analyses (WATA) system, and examines its impacts on teacher education. The WATA system is a follow‐on system, which applies the Triple‐A Model (assembling, administering, and appraising). Its functions include (1) an engine for teachers to administer and manage testing, (2) an engine for students to apply tests, and (3) an engine for generating test results and analyses for teachers. Two studies were undertaken to assess the usefulness and potential benefits of the WATA system for teacher education. In the first study, 47 in‐service teachers were asked to assess the functions of the WATA system. The results indicated that they were satisfied with the Triple‐A Model of the WATA system. In the second study, 30 pre‐service teachers were required to use the WATA system during the teacher‐training program. After 4 months of experience in using the WATA system, the pre‐service teachers' perspectives of assessment have been changed significantly. The findings of these two studies might provide some guidance to help those who are interested in the development of Web‐based assessment and intend to infuse information technology into teacher education.     

Graph interpretation practices of science and education majors

Abstract

Studies of scientists show that graphs and graphing are central to the processes and products of science. It does not surprise us that recent reform documents propose the development of competency in using and reading graphs as an important aspect of learning science and about science. Reform documents propose that (a) public school science classrooms have students engage in hands‐on inquiry practices, in which they summarize investigative activities using graphs, and (b) education students take science courses instructed by science department faculty members. Past research has demonstrated that pre‐service secondary teachers do not, on their own, default to the graphical summarizing and interpretive practices of scientists. We examined the graphical analysis practices of pre‐service elementary teachers and science graduates on two graphing tasks and concluded that there were few differences between those two groups in their interpretations. We propose a model to understand the differences between these groups and more experienced groups of graph interpreters. We conclude that taking the lecture‐oriented science courses common to science programs does not necessarily improve education students’ competencies at summarizing data or interpreting graphs and that they need to engage in scaffolded, research‐oriented activities themselves.     

The development of pre-service teachers' knowledge: A contemplative approach

This study investigates the effects of meditation on enhancing pre-service teacher knowledge based on the framework of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) by deepening the reflective process. Participants were students enrolled in an ICT literacy course during the fall 2014 semester. Pre- and post-course surveys indicated that the teachers had significant growth in TPACK and other types of teacher knowledge and in the depth of their reflective practice. Post-course interviews indicated positive effects from their reflective practice, showing that meditation helped the teachers prepare themselves for learning, conduct cognitive and affective tasks, and improve self-efficacy and inner strength. Several implications were noted for the future direction of teacher education programs and research.     

Relationships Between Prospective Middle Grades Mathematics Teachers' Beliefs and TPACK

As technology become more ubiquitous in the classroom, teachers need to overcome two types of barriers to use it effectively: access to resources (including the development of knowledge) and the development of appropriate beliefs. To assist teachers in overcoming these barriers, we must understand the relationships that exist among them. We examined relationships between middle grade prospective teachers' beliefs and their technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge framework (TPACK). We found possible relationships between their beliefs about the nature of mathematics, learning and teaching mathematics, and the use of technology and their content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and technological pedagogical content knowledge, respectively.     

Interrelationship between Stages of Concern and Technological,Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge: A study on Taiwanese senior high school in-service teachers

Whereas teachers’ Stages of Concern (SoC) and their Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) appear to be related constructs, studies are scant regarding the connection between these two research areas. This study intensively examined the association between Taiwanese senior high school teachers’ SoC and TPACK through a national survey (N = 605) and canonical correlational analysis. To ensure rigor of study, we revised a TPACK instrument for Taiwanese senior high school teachers, statistically tested SoC’s developmental phases, and reworked the Stages of Concern Questionnaire. Three canonical correlations became evident, portraying a significant connection between SoC and TPACK and further supporting our hypothesis that a higher level of technology integration would correlate higher with more synthesized types of teacher knowledge. Recommendations were put forward regarding support strategies of change facilitators, as well as directions for future research.     

Finding the crack in everything: Exploring the causal promise in science education

Abstract:

The author argues that there is a causal promise in pedagogic assumptions about the teaching and learning of science. That is, if teacher educators convince pre‐service teachers a concept is important, they will use it. As a result of a study of five beginning teachers, the author came to question this promise, through a critical ideological frame. In this study, the beginning teachers, who were taught critical science education as pre‐service students, claimed that they embraced this approach in their own teaching practices. However, on investigation, it was found that the teachers were not doing critical science education, as presented in their pre‐service course. This presented a paradox: What does it mean when the dualism of either taking up a theory or resisting it is shattered? Using a feminist post‐structuralist analysis to explore this paradox, the author critiques modernist notions of self, language, and desire to offer another way of making sense of what these teachers discussed. Upon reflection, the author outlines how feminist post‐structuralism has influenced her own practice teaching critical science education.     

TPACK-in-Action: Unpacking the contextual influences of teachers' construction of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)

In school-based environments, teachers need to consider contextual factors such as the availability of technology and school policies as they apply TPACK to address instructional problems. However, qualitative TPACK studies tend to exemplify the seven TPACK constructs whereas its contextual influences have not been articulated in detail. This study describes TPACK-in-Action, a framework that can be used to visualize the interplay between TPACK and four contextual factors (Physical/Technological, Cultural/Institutional, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal) that influence teachers' design of ICT lessons. This was used to analyze the lesson design discussions of 24 school teachers from a Singapore primary school who were teaching the levels of Primary 1, 4, and 5. Content analysis of the transcribed audio-recordings of teachers' discussions and chi-square analysis of coding frequencies found that when the logistics of lesson implementation as per the Cultural/Institutional category dominated group discussions, it curtailed the emergence of TPACK. When Intrapersonal factors such as beliefs of teaching and students were articulated and its pedagogical implications considered, it facilitated TPACK. Furthermore, the team facilitated by an experienced educational technologist also demonstrated higher occurrences of TPACK. These results suggest that for ICT innovation to be effective, the composition of design teams need to be carefully considered. Teachers also need to develop competencies to facilitate and discourse about design such that contextual concerns can be turned into opportunities to support pedagogical improvement.     

Exploring teachers' use of TPACK in design talk: The collaborative design of technology-rich early literacy activities

Research shows the benefits of collaborative design activity by teachers are that in their conversations (design talk) they develop technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). While more and more teachers engage in collaborative design, little is known about how they use TPACK during design. The main question of this study was: “What is the nature of design talk of a group of teachers during the design of technology-rich early literacy activities?” Using a holistic case study on design talk, the analysis focused on the topics that were under discussion and how these topics were discussed. Three phases of coding were applied: (a) how design represents any of the seven domains of TPACK knowledge (Pedagogical, Content, Technological, Technological Pedagogical, Technological Content, Pedagogical Content or Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge); (b), how design talk represented three aspects of reasoning (external priorities, practical concerns and existing orientations); and (c), and what levels of inquiry are reached (no-depth; sharing ideas; analyze; and plan). Findings indicate that design talk reflects moments in which teachers reach deeper levels of inquiry. Findings also indicate that TPACK was mostly linked to expressing practical concerns. However when engaging in deeper inquiry, teachers existing orientations featured more prominently in the conversations. External priorities hardly seemed to play any role in design talk. Also, when addressing TPACK or PCK, design talk mostly reflects practical concerns. Pedagogy was addressed not as a single knowledge domain, rather in conjunction with the other two domains. Practical implications are discussed regarding how to support teachers during collaborative design.     

Achieving educational technology standards: the relationship between student teacher's interest and institutional support offered

Having in mind the need for an increased attention to the importance of pre‐service teacher development concerning technology, this study examined teachers' interest to attain educational technology standards (Interest) in terms of their computer attitude (Attitude) and the professional support they received to attain these standards (Support). The study used a sample of 39 mathematics student teachers and 62 elementary student teachers. The two groups only differed in Support favouring elementary student teachers, who, contrary to mathematics student teachers, received some basic instruction concerning ET standards.Despite these differences in Support, the two‐group path analysis applied revealed that, for both student teachers, the direct effects of Support on Attitude and of Attitude on Interest were positive and significant. On the other hand, the total and direct effects of Support on Interest, although positive, were insignificant. However, because of significant indirect effects, the impact of Support on Interest was mediated through Attitude in both groups. These findings support the view that in order to develop Interest, Support should focus on developing Attitude, which may hold true in general not depending on student teacher type and the level of Support. Implications for further research and (pre‐service) teacher professional development are examined.