Characterization of gas fluidized beds of group C,A and B particles based on pressure fluctuations

Pressure fluctuation data were obtained with a quick response transducer at a sampling frequency of 100 Hz for periods of 100 s (i.e. 10,000 points) in order to characterize the gas-solid flow behaviour of fluidized beds of six powders. For beds of Geldart group B and group A particles, the occurrence and movement of bubbles caused vigourous pressure fluctuations of relatively large scale and weak dominant frequency. For beds of group C particles, on the other hand, pressure fluctuations were significantly smaller in scale and exhibited large dominant frequencies, with no clear formation of bubbles. The standard deviation of pressure fluctuations was markedly higher for the group A particles than for the group C powders. Group C particles could be characterized by gas voids and channels which exhibit periodic behavior, while beds of group A and B particles behaved in a less periodic manner and were dominated by more random and intensive bubble motion. Chaotic time series analysis was carried out for the six different species of particles. The Hurst exponent demonstrated differences between the three different powder groups. The two-phase character of gas-solids flow was more distinguishable for the group B and A powders than for the group C powders.     

Heat transfer to immersed surfaces in gas-fluidized beds of large particles and powder characterization

A particle classification scheme is proposed for fluidized beds by considering simultaneously the hydrodynamic and thermal properties. The powder characterization is obtained by considering Archimedes number together with Reynolds number at minimum fluidization. The powders are classified in three groups and the validity of the scheme is demonstrated by considering heat transfer data from fluidized beds of sands (d_p = 0.794 and 1.225 mm) and fire clay (3.0 mm) at ambient temperature and pressure in conjunction with heat transfer correlations and models developed for ‘large-particles’.     

Deterministic chaos: a new tool in fluidized bed design and operation

Deterministic chaos theory offers new and useful quantitative tools to characterize the non-linear dynamic behaviour of fluidized beds. The dimension and entropy of the fluidized bed's strange attractor can be used for various purposes, such as the classification of fluidization regimes or fluidized bed scale-up. This is illustrated by experimental and model simulation examples of deterministic chaotic behaviour in ambient gas-solids fluidized beds of Geldart B particles. It is shown that the Kolmogorov entropy is dependent on, amongst other parameters, the gas velocity and the bed aspect ratio. In dimensionless scaling of fluidized bed reactors this type of relationship can probably be of use in establishing full dynamic similarity.     

Modelling and experimental validation of a fluidized-bed reactor freeboard region: Application to natural gas combustion

A theoretical and experimental study of natural gas–air mixture combustion in a fluidized bed of sand particles is presented. The operating temperatures are lower than a critical temperature of 800 °C above which the combustion occurs in the vicinity of the fluidized bed. Our study focusses on the freeboard zone where most of the methane combustion takes place at such temperatures. Experimental results show the essential role of the projection zone in determining the global thermal efficiency of the reactor. The dense bed temperature, the fluidizing velocity and the mean particle diameter significantly affect the thermal behaviours.A model for natural gas–air mixture combustion in fluidized beds is proposed, counting for interactions between dense and dilute regions of the reactor [P. Pré, M. Hemati, B. Marchand, Study of natural gas combustion in fluidised beds: modelling and experimental validation, Chem. Eng. Sci. 53 (1998) (16), 2871] supplemented with the freeboard region modelling of Kunii–Levenspiel [D. Kunii, O. Levenspiel, Fluidized reactor models: 1. For bubbling beds of fines, intermediate and large particles. 2. For the lean phase: freeboard and fast fluidization, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 29 (1990) 1226–1234]. Thermal exchanges due to the convection between gas and particles, and due to the conduction and radiation phenomena between the gas-particle suspension and the reactor walls are counted. The kinetic scheme for the methane conversion is that proposed by Dryer and Glassman [F.L. Dryer, I. Glassman, High-temperature oxidation of CO and CH₄, Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburg (1973) 987]. Model predictions are in good agreement with the measurements.     

Modification and re-interpretation of Geldart's classification of powders

In developing his powder classification, Geldart [D. Geldart, Powder Technol. 7 (1973) 285.] employed fluidization data obtained only at ambient temperature and pressure and from beds fluidized only with air. Unfortunately, industrial applications of fluidized bed technology invariably are at elevated pressure and temperature and with fluidizing gas other than air. Geldart classification of powders does not apply at elevated pressure and temperature. There are ample evidences reported in the literature indicating that normally Geldart Group B powders at ambient conditions, such as polymer particles, can behave like a Group A powder under polymerization conditions at elevated pressure and moderate temperature with substantial emulsion-phase expansion, relatively small bubbles, smooth fluidization, and reduced gas bypassing [J.R. Grace, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 64 (1986) 353; I.D. Burdett, R.S. Elsinger, P. Cai, K.H. Lee, Gas-phase fluidization technology for production of polyolefins, in Fluidization X, Eds. M. Kwauk, J. Li, W.C. Yang, 2001, pp. 39-52; P.N. Rowe, P.U. Foscolo, A.C. Hoffmann, J.G. Yates, X-ray observation of gas fluidized beds under pressure, in Fluidization IV, Eds. D. Kunii, R. Toei, 1983, pp. 53-60]. Similar findings were also reported for Geldart Group B powders fluidized by supercritical carbon dioxide at elevated pressures [C. Vogt, R. Schreiber, J. Werther, G. Brunner, Fluidization at supercritical fluid conditions, in Fluidization X, Eds. M. Kwauk, J. Li, W.C. Yang, 2001, pp. 117-124; C. Vogt, R. Schreiber, G. Brunner, J. Werther, Powder Technol. 158 (2005) 102; D. Liu, M. Kwauk, H. Li, Chem. Eng. Sci. 51 (1996) 4045; M. Poletto, P. Salatino, L. Massimilla, Chem. Eng. Sci. 48 (1993) 617; A. Marzocchella, P. Salatino, AIChE J. 46 (2000) 901].The original Geldart's classification is modified and re-interpreted in this paper by plotting a dimensionless density against the Archimedes number. The new parameters allow powders with different properties fluidized at different pressures and temperatures with gases of different properties to be plotted in the same graph. The proposed modification successfully transforms the normally Geldart Group B particles at ambient conditions to Group A classification when fluidized at elevated pressure and temperature. The selection of these two parameters, the dimensionless density and the Archimedes number, for plotting is not arbitrary, however. The experimental and theoretical development is discussed.     

Hydrodynamics of a Novel Biomass Autothermal Fast Pyrolysis Reactor: Flow Pattern and Pressure Drop

A novel biomass, autothermal, fast pyrolysis reactor with a draft tube and an internal dipleg dividing the reactor into two interconnected beds is proposed. This internally interconnected fluidized beds (IIFB) reactor is designed to produce high‐quality bio‐oil using catalysts. Meanwhile, the pyrolysis by‐products, i.e., char, coke and non‐condensable gases, are expected to burn in the combustion bed to provide the heat for the pyrolysis. On the other hand, the catalysts can be regenerated simultaneously. In this study, experiments on the hydrodynamics of a cold model IIFB reactor are reported. Geldart group B and D sand particles were used as the bed materials. The effects of spouting and fluidizing gas velocities, particle size, static bed height and the total pressure loss coefficient of the pyrolysis bed exit, on the flow patterns and pressure drops of the two interconnected beds are studied. Six distinct flow patterns, i.e., fixed bed (F), periodic spouted/bubbling bed (PS/B), spouted bed with aeration (SA), spout‐fluidized bed (SF), spout‐fluidized bed with slugging (SFS) and spouted bed with backward jet (SBJ) are identified. The investigations on the pressure drops of the two beds show that both of them are seen to increase at first (mainly in the F flow pattern), then to decrease (mainly in the PS/B and SA flow patterns) and finally to increase again (mainly in the SA and SF flow patterns), with the increase of the spouting gas velocity. It is observed that a larger particle size and lower static bed height lead to lower pressure drops of the two beds.     

Solids flow between interconnected shallow fluidized beds

Many industrial processes utilising two or more fluidized beds are connected such that one bed flows through an opening into the other. By operating regions of the two beds at different superficial gas velocities, a bulk density difference can be created between them to effect a solids transfer through a submerged opening. The resultant flow of solids between fluidized beds of sand (194 μm and 224 μm) is modelled on the basis of a liquid analogy and force-momentum balances. The correct functional dependency of the solids flow rate is predicted for a range of gas velocities; experimental results are 70–90% of the predicted values. The prediction of the solids flow rate for changes in the size of the openings between the beds is less satisfactory, possibly because of the return flow of solids which is associated with the forward flow.     

Scale-up of fluidized-bed hydrodynamics

The scale-up of fluidized beds is not an exact science. However, using proven techniques based on experience and mathematical and/or design models can minimize risk and uncertainty when scaling up fluidized beds. Scaling, which maintains that certain dimensionless groups be matched in different sized units for hydrodynamic similarity to be achieved, is different than scale-up, and generally can not be applied to pilot plants used for scale-up. Scaling is typically more useful to be applied to cold model studies that can be used to improve the operation of an existing plant. Deep fluidized beds of Group A materials can cause significant gas bypassing leading to poor gas-solids contacting. Because commercial beds are generally deeper than beds used in pilot plants, care must be taken to ensure that beds that do not exhibit gas bypassing in smaller units, do not have gas bypassing in commercial systems.     

Dependence of Heat-Transfer coefficient for immersed surfaces in a gas-fluidized bed on pressure

The correlations and theories developed for the prediction of heat-transfer coefficients for immersed surfaces in fluidized beds are examined for their applicability and appropriateness at different pressures. It is found that the pressure dependence of minimum fluidization velocity and heat-transfer coefficient for ‘small’ and ‘large’ particle systems can be reconciled with an adequate interpretation of available correlations and model expressions on the basis of a recently proposed particle classification scheme. The latter utilizes the concept of Archimedes number to provide a particle classification scheme which interprets particles into different categories, keeping both hydrodynamic and thermal behaviors of the bed consistent with each other at the same time. Good agreement of the available experimental data with appropriate theories is demonstrated.     

Heat transfer to walls in a high temperature fluidized bed of group II particles

High temperature heat transfer data in the particle diameter range 0.73 – 1.41 mm and temperature range 490 – 918 °C are presented. The original measurement method is based on an overall thermal balance over a 0.40 m² heat exchange surface. Experimental data are analyzed using results from the literature and a ‘particle-based’ heat transfer model. It is found that gas convective heat transfer is significant for the largest particles (1.41 mm) but it may be neglected for 1.18 mm particles at temperatures above 700 °C. An analysis of this result on the basis of Saxena and Ganzha's powder classification scheme is proposed. A general correlation based on Archimedes and Planck numbers is presented. It takes into account the interaction between radiation and conduction at high temperatures, utilizing the experimental results for beds of corundum particles (0.28, 0.425, 0.6, 0.73, 1, and 1.18 mm) in the temperature range 500 – 900 °C.     

Internally circulating fluidized bed for continuous adsorption and desorption

An internally circulating fluidized bed has been developed for continuous adsorption and desorption. This system can be used more generally for many other reaction/regeneration operations. It helps to separate and to recover gaseous pollutants and reusable compounds (e.g. CO₂, SO₂, organic solvent vapors, along with other gases). Two fluidized beds are arranged next to each other. The partition wall in the upper and lower part of the fluidized beds has horizontal openings to let solid matter pass through. As the two beds are fluidized at different rates, the bed material starts to circulate between the two beds. The bed material doubles as an adsorbent. In the adsorption zone, polluted gas is used for fluidization; in the desorption zone, heated air or steam is used. The main differences from conventional fixed-bed adsorbers are that plants can be built in a more compact manner, higher flow rates can be achieved, and separate optimization of the two zones (adsorption zone, desorption zone) is possible.     

The role of contact stresses and wall friction on fluidization

Fluidization and defluidization experiments, where we increased the gas superficial velocity in small increments and then decreased it, were performed in tubes of different diameters to probe the role of wall friction on pressure drop and bed height. Such experiments, covering the regimes of packed bed, stable bed expansion and bubbling bed, were carried out for several different particles. The compressive yield strength of the particle assemblies at various volume fractions was determined by measuring the height of fully defluidized beds at various mass loading levels. The systematic effect of the tube diameter on pressure drop and bed height hysteresis could be rationalized in terms of a one-dimensional model that accounted for the effect of wall friction and path-dependent contact stresses in the particle phase. Bubbling seemed to set in when the yield stress in the particle assembly could be overcome by the inherent fluctuations. Our experiments, which focused primarily on gas velocities below the minimum bubbling conditions, did not reveal any dramatic change across the Geldart A-B boundary. This is consistent with the original observation by Geldart (Powder Technol. 7 (1973) 285). The distinct difference between beds of group A and B particles in the gently bubbling regime reported by Cody et al. (Powder Technol. 87 (1996) 211) is thus likely to be due to changes in the dynamics of the bubbles, as we observed no striking difference between these beds at gas velocities below minimum bubbling conditions.     

Liquid-Solid mass transfer in a slurry bubble column and a gas-liquid-solid three-phase fluidized bed

Mass transfer coefficients between particles and liquids in a slurry bubble column and a three-phase fluidized bed containing small size particles were obtained with two mass transfer systems: (1) K⁺ –Na⁺ ion-exchange in cation-exchange resin bead beds, including anion-exchange resin beads as inert particles; (2) zinc dissolution by HCl in zinc-plated glass bead beds, and in beds of non-plated glass beads. Operating parameters were gas velocity, liquid velocity, particle diameter, and particle concentration. The dependence of mass transfer coefficients on these parameters is discussed from the viewpoint of the energy supplied into the systems. Correlations of the experimental data using dimensionless groups are compared to previous correlations.     

不同颗粒流化床层中挡板受力特性对比

颗粒性质对流化床内气固流动特性具有重要的影响,不同颗粒床层内气固流动特性的不同也将引起床层中内构件受力特性的变化。采用在测试挡板表面粘贴应变计的方法,系统对比测量了一个斜片挡板在FCC颗粒（Geldart A）和石英砂颗粒（Geldart B）两种流化床内受力特性的差异,并系统比较了操作参数变化时挡板在两种颗粒床层中受力特性变化规律的差异。结果表明,在相同的操作条件下,挡板在B类颗粒床层中受力载荷的均方根值大小约是A类颗粒床层中的2～3倍;除挡板安装在靠近分布器位置外,总体来讲,在两种颗粒的床层中,挡板所受载荷强度都随表观气速的增大而增大。但是,在两种颗粒床层中,挡板安装高度变化对挡板受力特性影响差异较大,在B类颗粒床层中所受载荷强度随着安装高度增大而增大,而在A类颗粒床层中所受载荷强度随安装高度增大呈现先减小后增大的趋势。此外,挡板倾角度θ在75°～90°之间变化时,挡板所受载荷强度在两种颗粒流化床中均随着挡板倾角增大呈现急剧下降的趋势,而当θ=0°～75°时,B类颗粒床层中挡板所受载荷强度随挡板倾角增大略有下降,而A类颗粒床层中挡板所受载荷强度变化并不十分明显。     

Hydrodynamic characteristics of jet-spouted beds

Jet-spouted beds characterised by high velocity gas jets (above 1.7 U_msl), and shallow bed depths H₀ of around 2 D₁ were investigated on laboratory scale beds and industrial scale beds and the results obtained thereof are correlated and presented in this work. Compared with the classical spouted beds, important differences in bed structure, solid movements and basic hydrodynamic characteristics were observed. The minimum spouting velocity, bed voidage and pressure drop during stabilized spouting are described in terms of dimensionless equations. Bed expansion was used as the basis for the classification of different jet-spouting regimes (incoherent spouting, fast spouting, pneumatic conveying) and changes in the slope of the bed expansion curve are correlated with regime changes. This classification could be useful in the optimization of industrial scale jet-spouted beds. A typically applicable regime of fast spouting was identified.     

Modelling turbulent fluidized bed reactors: tracer and fibre optic probe studies

Phenomenological models for turbulent fluidized beds are presented in this study. These models are based on a “core-annulus” representation of the turbulent fluidized bed.Three flow regions are considered: (1) gas flows through a dense annular region and is either perfectly mixed or in plug flow; (2) gas circulates in the core as bubbles in plug flow; (3) gas is perfectly mixed in a dense emulsion phase, also in the core zone. The models also account for mass transfer between different regions by assuming various possible gas exchange paths.A new technique which combines novel reflective fibre optic probes and statistical signal treatment is used to measure local flow properties. Results from fibre optic experiments coupled with those from an inert non-adsorbing tracer (helium) allow for mass transfer parameter assessment.These data demonstrate the importance of incorporating an annular region in the simulation of the main bed section of turbulent fluidized beds. Modelling results of this work strongly suggest the critical importance of gas exchange between bubbles in the core and a pseudo-homogeneous annular region.     

Distinctions between low density and high density circulating fluidized beds

While many fundamental studies have been carried out in relatively low density circulating fluidized beds (LDCFB), there has been little reported fundamental study of the high density (including high solids flux and/or high solids concentration) circulating fluidized bed (HDCFB), although many commercial CFB setups are operating under high density conditions. Catalytic gas-phase reactions tend to require higher gas velocity and higher solids flux and/or concentration than gas-solids reactions, and therefore it is necessary to make a distinction between the two types of operations. The study of hydrodynamics and other fundamentals of HDCFB will help in understanding the fundamentals and thus improving the design and operation of existing HDCFB reactors such as FCC risers, and may also lead to other applications requiring even higher solids/gas feed ratios and/or higher solids concentration in the riser. On the other hand, high density operation can only be achieved by properly choosing the gas blower, solids feeding system and CFB geometry to avoid the instabilities resulting from insufficient pressure head from the gas blower and downcomers.     

Comparison of Fixed and Fluidized Activated Carbon Beds for Removal of Organic Vapors

Activated carbons are commonly used for removal of organic vapors from exhaust air streams. Two configurations, including fixed and fluidized carbon beds are usually employed in industry to meet various requirements of the industrial process which is being used. This paper investigates the performance of such configurations and provides a comparative analysis. It was found that for thin carbon layers, the fixed bed performs more efficiently with the difference exceeding 15 % for the layers with the thickness less than 15 mm. This difference is decreasing with increase of the layer thickness and becomes less than 5 % for the beds thicker than 100 mm. Considering various advantages of the fluidized beds over fixed beds, including lower resistance to the gas flow, excellent gas distribution and minimal possibility of clogging in case of existence of alien particles in the gas, they are recommended for use with the minimal thickness of the layer to be larger than 100 mm.     

Pressure gradients,voidage and gas flow in the annulus of spouted beds

Parallel measurements of pressure gradients with a differential pressure probe and voidage profiles with a fibre optic system have been carried out to study gas flow distributions in the annulus of spouted beds. The observation of Grbavcic et al. (1976) that for a given fluid‐solid combination and column geometry the annulus pressure gradient at any bed level is independent of bed depth was corroborated again. Calibration curves of pressure drops versus superficial gas velocities for beds of voidage higher than the loose‐packed voidage were obtained by applying the Ergun (1952) equation, making it possible to estimate superficial gas velocities in the annulus using the static pressure gradient method. The local superficial gas velocity in the annulus was found to be higher in a deep bed than in a shallow bed of the same material, contrary to the conclusion (Grbavcic et al., 1976) that, for a given fluid‐solid combination and column geometry, the annulus fluid velocity at any level is independent of bed depth. Theoretical models and equations which do not account for the conical geometry near the bottom were found to underpredict superficial gas velocities in the annulus. Increasing the spouting gas flow was found to increase the net gas flow through the annulus.