生物制氢反应系统的启动负荷与乙醇型发酵

采用连续流搅拌槽式反应器(CSTR),以糖蜜废水为底物,研究了COD容积负荷对生物制氢反应系统启动过程中形成的乙醇型发酵产氢能力的影响。研究表明,在污泥接种量不小于6.24 gVSS/L、启动负荷为7.0 kgCOD/m3.d、水力停留时间(HRT)为6 h、系统pH、氧化还原电位(ORP)分别在4.0~4.3、-440~-470mV之间等条件下,可在30 d内完成乙醇型发酵菌群的驯化,实现生物制氢反应系统的快速启动。由不同启动负荷(3.0、7.0、10.0 kgCOD/m3.d)条件下形成的乙醇型发酵菌群,在相同的运行条件下其产氢能力存在着差异。当系统容积负荷为30 kgCOD/m3.d时,由启动负荷为7.0 kgCOD/m3.d条件下驯化形成的乙醇型发酵菌群比由启动负荷为3.0 kgCOD/m3.d条件下驯化形成的乙醇型发酵菌群产氢能力高56%。     

新型生物制氢反应器的运行及产氢特性

以厌氧活性污泥为产氢菌种,糖蜜废水为底物,研究了新型外循环颗粒污泥膨胀床(ECGSB)生物制氢反应器的运行及产氢特性.结果表明,ECGSB反应器可在较高的容积负荷(VLR)下实现高效稳定的产氢,稳定运行时,反应器内可观察到自絮凝产氢颗粒污泥的形成,污泥平均浓度高达24.1gVSS/d,系统最大产氢能力为7.43m3/m3·d,发酵气中氢气体积含量为50%～56%.系统形成自絮凝产氢颗粒污泥是ECGSB反应器高效运行和产氢的关键,自絮凝产氢颗粒污泥既增加了活性产氢细菌的生物持有量,又提高了系统抗冲击负荷的能力.连续流运行各项参数表明,ECGSB反应器具有良好的运行稳定性和产氢优势;提出乙醇型发酵快速启动的调控对策,在发酵法生物制氢领域具有广泛的应用前景.     

丁酸型发酵产氢的运行稳定性

着重对发酵法生物制氢反应系统的丁酸型发酵的运行稳定性进行了研究分析。结果表明,在有机负荷大于21kgCOD/m3·d的条件下,丁酸型发酵具有不稳定性,在负荷冲击下容易转变为丙酸含量较高的发酵类型,从而导致系统产氢能力的下降。分析认为,NADH/NAD+的平衡调节能力是影响系统运行稳定性的一个关键因素。在高负荷条件下,由于丁酸型发酵的产丁酸过程不能氧化过剩的NADH+H+,导致产乙酸过程生成的剩余NADH+H+在系统内大量积累,使反应系统难以达到氧化还原的平衡状态,最终影响了系统的稳定运行。     

生物制氢反应器产氢产乙酸菌群对挥发酸的转化

采用间歇培养的方式,利用取自生物制氢反应器的厌氧活性污泥考察了活性污泥中产氢产乙酸菌群对乙醇、乙酸、丙酸、丁酸、戊酸和乳酸的转化和产氢。结果表明,培养时间为44h时,厌氧活性污泥发酵葡萄糖的累计产气量为356mL,累计产氢量为209mL,氢气含量为58.7%。发酵产物的组成成分乙醇为427.1mg/L、乙酸为716.5mg/L、丙酸为172.5mg/L、丁酸为689.4mg/L、戊酸为123.6mg/L。发酵生物制氢反应器厌氧活性污泥中产氢产乙酸菌群能够对乙醇和乳酸进行产氢产乙酸转化,厌氧污泥转化乙醇形成的乙酸含量约为270mg/L,累计产氢量为15mL;转化乳酸形成的乙酸含量约为190mg/L,累计产氢量为7mL。厌氧污泥不能对乙酸、丙酸、丁酸和戊酸进行产氢产乙酸转化,培养过程中也没有气体生成,分析认为产氢产乙酸菌群对挥发酸的转化不是发酵生物制氢反应器产氢的主要途径。     

厌氧高效产氢细菌的筛选及其耐酸性研究

采用厌氧Hungate技术 ,从生物制氢反应器厌氧活性污泥中分离到 18株发酵产氢细菌 ,并从中优选出 1株高效产氢细菌B4 9。通过间歇试验 ,B4 9获得最大比产氢速率QH2 为 2 5 .0mmol/g·h ,单位体积产氢量YH2 为 1813.8mL/L ,氢气含量为 6 4 .15 %。B4 9菌株为乙醇型发酵产氢细菌 ,具有良好的耐酸性 ,在 pH3.3仍能生长。发酵产氢和细菌生长的最适 pH值约为 3.9～ 4 .2。     

厌氧序批式反应器(ASBR)启动特性研究

以葡萄糖为进水基质，研究了厌氧序批式反应器（ASBR）的启动过程。实验表明：在中温条件下接种普通厌氧污泥，逐步增加反应器负荷，经过168d的运行，ASBR反应器的容积负荷由接种时的1．5kgCODCr／m^3／d提高到了设计值：5kgCODCr／m^3／d，产气率达到0．33m^3/kgCOD,COD的去除率达到97．5％，出水的VFA稳定在250mg／L左右，污泥的最大乙酸、丙酸和丁酸代谢活性有大幅增加，甲酸代谢活性有所降低。     

玉米秸秆厌氧发酵生物制氢放大试验研究

在前期试验的基础上,以牛粪堆肥作为菌种来源,以玉米秸秆作为发酵底物,分别在5 L和30 L反应器中进行厌氧发酵制氢试验.试验结果表明:30L反应器处理底物的能力为15 g/L,5 L反应器为10g/L,其相应的底物最高产氢潜力分别为198.25,109.58 ml/g.5 L反应器和30 L反应器的最佳搅拌速率分别为120,100r/min,累积产氢量分别为5.51,58.50L.发酵过程中微生物的生长符合典型的微生物生长规律.5 L反应器和30 L反应器的气相产物中最高含氢量分别为55%和61%.由液相发酵产物确定两反应器中的发酵均为丁酸型发酵.修正后的Gompezrt产氢动力学模型能够很好地描述两反应器的发酵产氢过程,反应器经过放大后,其产氢性能得到了明显的提高.     

UASB工艺常温处理木薯加工废水

为了控制喀麦隆木薯加工废水的污染并回收沼气 ,选用上流式厌氧污泥床反应器 (UASB) ,进行了常温厌氧处理木薯加工废水的试验。结果表明 :采用UASB工艺处理COD浓度为 14190mg/L的木薯加工废水 ,COD去除率可达90 %以上 ,容积COD负荷达 6.81g/L·d ,容积沼气产率 3 .2 0L/L·d。在实用中 ,进水COD浓度宜控制在 140 0 0mg/L左右 ;容积COD负荷宜控制在 7.0 0 g/L·d左右 ;水力停留时间宜控制在 2d。     

产甲烷菌固定化新方法及其甲烷化特性

为了克服以PVA为包埋介质对甲烷八叠球菌进行固定化存在的缺点 ,采用吸附和包埋结合法对甲烷八叠球菌进行固定化 ,并用固定化甲烷八叠球菌处理人工废水和豆制品废水 ,对其特性进行研究。用人工废水运行的结果表明 ,最高容积负荷为 14 7kgCOD/m3·d ,最高COD去除率为 94 3 % ,最低水滞留期为 16 4h ,甲烷含量为 65 %～73 %。用豆制品废水运行的结果表明 ,最高COD负荷 17 6kgCOD/m3·d ,平均容积负荷 8 2kgCOD/m3·d,最短水滞留期 13 7h。最高产气率 7L/d·L平均产气率固定化为非固定化的 15 .2倍 ,最高COD去除率达到了 87.0 % ,运行期间固定化介质不上浮、不膨胀 ,具有很好的传质和脱气性能 ,较好的解决了包埋法固定化中存在的问题。     

一体化生物滤池处理城市污水试验研究

通过试验研究一体化生物滤池对城市生活污水的处理效果。考察了水里停留时间(HRT)、COD容积负荷、填料高度、曝气强度等的影响。结果表明,在流量为85L/h、容积负荷在1.0～1.5kgCOD/(m3·d)、曝气强度在0.4～0.6L/(m2·s)之间时滤池水中COD和SS的去除率约为85%～90%,氨氮的去除率为61.7%。     

Ash-forming elements in four Scandinavian wood species. Part 1: Summer harvest

Woody biomass in Finland and Sweden comprises mainly four wood species: spruce, pine, birch and aspen. To study the ash, which may cause problems for the combustion device, one tree of each species were cut down and prepared for comparisons with fuel samples. Well-defined samples of wood, bark and foliage were analyzed on 11 ash-forming elements: Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, P, S and Cl. The ash content in the wood tissues (0.2–0.7%) was low compared to the ash content in the bark tissues (1.9–6.4%) and the foliage (2.4–7.7%). The woods’ content of ash-forming elements was consequently low; the highest contents were of Ca (410–1340 ppm) and K (200–1310), followed by Mg (70–290), Mn (15–240) and P (0–350). Present in the wood was also Si (50–190), S (50–200) and Cl (30–110). The bark tissues showed much higher element contents; Ca (4800–19,100 ppm) and K (1600–6400) were the dominating elements, followed by Mg (210–2400), P (210–1200), Mn (110–1100) and S (310–750), but the Cl contents (40–330) were only moderately higher in the bark than in the wood. The young foliage (shoots and deciduous leaves) had the highest K (7100–25,000 ppm), P (1600–5300) and S (1100–2600) contents of all tissues, while the shoots of spruce had the highest Cl contents (820–1360) and its needles the highest Si content (5000–11,300). This paper presented a new approach in fuel characterization: the method excludes the presence of impurities, and focus on different categories of plant tissues. This made it possible to discuss the contents of ash element in a wide spectrum of fuel-types, which are of large importance for the energy production in Finland and Sweden.     

Performance assessment of some ice TES systems

In this paper, a performance assessment of four main types of ice storage techniques for space cooling purposes, namely ice slurry systems, ice-on-coil systems (both internal and external melt), and encapsulated ice systems is conducted. A detailed analysis, coupled with a case study based on the literature data, follows. The ice making techniques are compared on the basis of energy and exergy performance criteria including charging, discharging and storage efficiencies, which make up the ice storage and retrieval process. Losses due to heat leakage and irreversibilities from entropy generation are included. A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with R134a as the working fluid provides the cooling load, while the analysis is performed in both a full storage and partial storage process, with comparisons between these two. In the case of full storage, the energy efficiencies associated with the charging and discharging processes are well over 98% in all cases, while the exergy efficiencies ranged from 46% to 76% for the charging cycle and 18% to 24% for the discharging cycle. For the partial storage systems, all energy and exergy efficiencies were slightly less than that for full storage, due to the increasing effect wall heat leakage has on the decreased storage volume and load. The results show that energy analyses alone do not provide much useful insight into system behavior, since the vast majority of losses in all processes are a result of entropy generation which results from system irreversibilities.     

NEXT GENERATION ENGINEERED MATERIALS FOR ULTRA SUPERCRITICAL STEAM TURBINES

正1 ABSTRACT To reduce the effect of global warming on our climate,the levels of CO2emissions should be reduced.One way to do this is to increase the efficiency of electricity production from fossil fuels.This will in turn reduce the amount of CO2emissions for a given power output.Using US practice for efficiency calculations,then a move from a typical US plant running at 37%efficiency to a 760℃/38.5 MPa(1 400/5 580 psi)plant running at 48%efficiency would reduce CO2emissions by 170kg/MW.hr or 25%.     

Effect of co-cultivation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with Azotobacter chroococcum on hydrogen production

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cc124 and Azotobacter chroococcum bacteria were co-cultured with a series of volume ratios and under a variety of light densities to determine the optimal culture conditions and to investigate the mechanism by which co-cultivation improves H₂ yield. The results demonstrated that the optimal culture conditions for the highest H₂ production of the combined system were a 1:40 vol ratio of bacterial cultures to algal cultures under 200 μE m^?2 s^?1. Under these conditions, the maximal H₂ yield was 255 μmol mg^?1 Chl, which was approximately 15.9-fold of the control. The reasons for the improvement in H₂ yield included decreased O₂ content, enhanced algal growth, and increased H₂ase activity and starch content of the combined system.     

Aerodynamic performance effects of leading-edge geometry in gas-turbine blades

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of the direct surface-curvature distribution blade-design method, originally proposed by Korakianitis, for the leading-edge design of turbine blades, and by extension for other types of airfoil shapes. The leading edge shape is critical in the blade design process, and it is quite difficult to completely control with inverse, semi-inverse or other direct-design methods. The blade-design method is briefly reviewed, and then the effort is concentrated on smoothly blending the leading edge shape (circle or ellipse, etc.) with the main part of the blade surface, in a manner that avoids leading-edge flow-disturbance and flow-separation regions. Specifically in the leading edge region we return to the second-order (parabolic) construction line coupled with a revised smoothing equation between the leading-edge shape and the main part of the blade. The Hodson–Dominy blade has been used as an example to show the ability of this blade-design method to remove leading-edge separation bubbles in gas turbine blades and other airfoil shapes that have very sharp changes in curvature near the leading edge. An additional gas turbine blade example has been used to illustrate the ability of this method to design leading edge shapes that avoid leading-edge separation bubbles at off-design conditions. This gas turbine blade example has inlet flow angle 0°, outlet flow angle −64.3°, and tangential lift coefficient 1.045, in a region of parameters where the leading edge shape is critical for the overall blade performance. Computed results at incidences of −10°,   −5°,   +5°,   +10° are used to illustrate the complete removal of leading edge flow-disturbance regions, thus minimizing the possibility of leading-edge separation bubbles, while concurrently minimizing the stagnation pressure drop from inlet to outlet. These results using two difficult example cases of leading edge geometries illustrate the superiority and utility of this blade-design method when compared with other direct or inverse blade-design methods.     

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO_x emissions. High NO_x emissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture. Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CI-engine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At the same time, lower NO_x and CO₂ emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CI-engine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions. Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection. Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines and fuel-injection systems is needed.     

Exergetic evaluation of 5 biowastes-to-biofuels routes via gasification

This paper presents the exergy analysis results for the production of several biofuels, i.e., SNG (synthetic natural gas), methanol, Fischer–Tropsch fuels, hydrogen, as well as heat and electricity, from several biowastes generated in the Dutch province of Friesland, selected as one of the typical European regions. Biowastes have been classified in 5 virtual streams according to their ultimate and proximate analysis. All production chains have been modeled in Aspen Plus in order to analyze their technical performance. The common steps for all the production chains are: pre-treatment, gasification, gas cleaning, water–gas-shift reactions, catalytic reactors, final gas separation and upgrading. Optionally a gas turbine and steam turbines are used to produce heat and electricity from unconverted gas and heat removal, respectively. The results show that, in terms of mass conversion, methanol production seems to be the most efficient process for all the biowastes. SNG synthesis is preferred when exergetic efficiency is the objective parameter, but hydrogen process is more efficient when the performance is analyzed by means of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. The main exergy losses account for the gasification section, except in the electricity and heat production chain, where the combined cycle is less efficient.     

Hydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceous materials using concentrated solar energy – V. Reactor modeling,optimization, and scale-up

A chemical reactor for the steam-gasification of carbonaceous particles (e.g. coal, coke) is considered for using concentrated solar radiation as the energy source of high-temperature process heat. A two-phase reactor model that couples radiative, convective, and conductive heat transfer to the chemical kinetics is applied to optimize the reactor geometrical configuration and operational parameters (feedstock's initial particle size, feeding rates, and solar power input) for maximum reaction extent and solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of a 5 kW prototype reactor and its scale-up to 300 kW. For the 300 kW reactor, complete reaction extent is predicted for an initial feedstock particle size up to 35 μm at residence times of less than 10 s and peak temperatures of 1818 K, yielding high-quality syngas with a calorific content that has been solar-upgraded by 19% over that of the petcoke gasified.     

Assessment methods of material ageing using Sdobyrev''s creep rupture model

The physical aspects of the activation energy, in higher and high temperatures, of the metal creep process were examined. The research results of creep-rupture in a uniaxial stress state and the criterion of creep-rupture in biaxial stress states, at two temperatures, are then presented. For these studies creep-rupture, taking case iron as an example the energy and pseudoenergy activation was determined. For complex stress states the criterion of creep-rupture was taken to be Sdobyrev's, i.e. σ_red = σ₁ β + (1 − β)σ_i, where: σ₁-maximal principal stress, σ_i-stress intensity, β-material constant (at variable temperature β = β(T)). The methods of assessment of the material ageing grade are given in percentages of ageing of new material in the following mechanical properties: 1) creep strength in uniaxial stress state, 2) activation energy in uniaxial stress state, 3) criterion creep strength in complex stress states, 4) activation pseudoenergy in complex stress states. The methods 1) and 3) are the relatively simplest because they result from experimental investigations only at nominal temperature of the structure work, however, for methods 2) and 4) it is necessary to perform the experimental investigations at least at two temperatures.     

Production of hydrogen from sewage biosolids in a continuously fed bioreactor: Effect of hydraulic retention time and sparging

Hydrogen was produced from primary sewage biosolids via mesophilic anaerobic fermentation in a continuously fed bioreactor. Prior to fermentation the sewage biosolids were heated to 70 °C for 1 h to inactivate methanogens and during fermentation a cellulose degrading enzyme was added to improve substrate availability. Hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 18, 24, 36 and 48 h were evaluated for the duration of hydrogen production. Without sparging a hydraulic retention time of 24 h resulted in the longest period of hydrogen production (3 days), during which a hydrogen yield of 21.9 L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added to the bioreactor was achieved. Methods of preventing the decline of hydrogen production during continuous fermentation were evaluated. Of the techniques evaluated using nitrogen gas to sparge the bioreactor contents proved to be more effective than flushing just the headspace of the bioreactor. Sparging at 0.06 L L min⁻¹ successfully prevented a decline in hydrogen production and resulted in a yield of 27.0  L H₂ kg⁻¹ VS added, over a period of greater than 12 days or 12 HRT. The use of sparging also delayed the build up of acetic acid in the bioreactor, suggesting that it serves to inhibit homoacetogenesis and thus maintain hydrogen production.