Analysis of environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals using the E-screen method and stir bar sorptive extraction in wastewater treatment plant effluents

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have become a major issue in the field of environmental science due to their ability to interfere with the endocrine system. Recent studies show that surface water is contaminated with EDCs, many released from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). This pilot study used biological (E-screen assay) and chemical (stir bar sorptive extraction-GC-MS) analyses to quantify estrogenic activity in effluent water samples from a municipal WWTP and in water samples of the recipient river, upstream and downstream of the plant.The E-screen assay was performed on samples after solid phase extraction (SPE) to determine total estrogenic activity; the presence of estrogenic substances can be evaluated by measuring the 17-β-estradiol equivalency quantity (EEQ). Untreated samples were also assayed with an acute toxicity test (Vibrio fischeri) to study the correlation between toxicity and estrogenic disruption activity.Mean EEQs were 4.7 ng/L (± 2.7 ng/L) upstream and 4.4 ng/L (± 3.7 ng/L) downstream of the plant, and 11.1 ng/L (± 11.7 ng/L) in the effluent. In general the WWTP effluent had little impact on estrogenicity nor on the concentration of EDCs in the river water. The samples upstream and downstream of the plant were non-toxic or weakly toxic (0 < TU < 0.9) while the effluent was weakly toxic or toxic (0.4 < TU < 7.6). Toxicity and estrogenic activity were not correlated.At most sites, industrial mimics, such as the alkylphenols and phthalates, were present in higher concentrations than natural hormones. Although the concentrations of the detected xenoestrogens were generally higher than those of the steroids, they accounted for only a small fraction of the EEQ because of their low estrogenic potency. The EEQs resulting from the E-screen assay and those calculated from the results of chemical analyses using estradiol equivalency factors were comparable for all samples and closely correlated.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in stormwater canals and Bayou St. John in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

Samples were collected from two stormwater canals and a recreational urban waterway known as Bayou St. John in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA and analyzed for a range of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Concentrations of 7 PPCPs and EDCs were measured by a method that provides for simultaneous extraction and quantification of the following compounds: clofibric acid, naproxen, ibuprofen, fluoxetine, clorophene, triclosan, bisphenol A. The method also was used as an indicator of the occurrence of estrogenic compounds by targeting estrone and 17beta-estradiol. The two canals (Orleans and London) are used to drain a portion of the city's stormwater directly into the Mississippi River or Lake Pontchartrain. Bayou St. John is located between the two canals and supplied with water from Lake Pontchartrain. Results from the 6-month sampling period indicated the following concentration ranges for the two stormwater canals: naproxen (ND - 145 ng/l), ibuprofen (ND - 674 ng/l), triclosan (ND - 29 ng/l) and bisphenol A (1.9-158 ng/l). Concentrations of these target analytes increased with cumulative rainfall. For bayou waters, only naproxen (2.1-4.8 ng/l) and bisphenol A (0.9-44 ng/l) were detected. Estrone was detected but determined non-quantifiable for multiple sampling events at the 3 sites. None of the other target analytes (clofibric acid, fluoxetine, clorophene, and 17beta-estradiol) were detected above their method detection levels. Results of this study demonstrate the occurrence of PPCPs and EDCs in New Orleans stormwater canals and Bayou St. John. Results also demonstrate the use of this analytical technique as an indicator of non-point source sewage contamination in New Orleans stormwater canals.     

Organochlorine pesticides in colostrums in case of normal and preterm labor (IASI, Romania)

Assessment of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in human body is important for human health because they have weak estrogenic or antiestrogenic effects and are considered endocrine disrupters. We used colostrum of women as indicator for levels of OCPs in human body for mothers with normal and preterm labor from eastern part of Romania. Sixty- three samples of colostrum were extracted by solid-phase extraction. Analyses were carried out using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). OCPs have been detected in all samples, with p,p’-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p’-DDE) and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH) being at the highest concentrations. Of the organochlorines measured in clostrum samples from women in preterm labor, median levels of DDTs (470 ng/g) and HCHs (99 ng/g) were higher than for the same compounds from women in normal labor (median of DDTs = 268 ng/g and median of HCHs = 96 ng/g). Normal labor had higher median concentrations of HCB (19.5 ng/g) versus preterm labor (14 ng/g). Statistical data show high Spearman correlation coefficients between various OCPs. We found a good correlation between α-, γ-, β- and δ- HCH isomers (p < 0.001) for both normal and preterm labor. The most abundant target compound was p,p’-DDE (median value 96 ng/g, and 137 ng/g for mother with normal and preterm labor, respectively) in all colostrum samples. The estimated daily intakes of HCHs by infants exceeded corresponding Health Canada guidelines.     

Determination of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals and acidic pharmaceuticals in surface water of the Pearl Rivers in South China by gas chromatography-negative chemical ionization-mass spectrometry

An analytical method for phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals and acidic pharmaceuticals in river water was developed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) coupled with negative chemical ionization (NCI) technique, and used for the determination of these compounds in the Pearl Rivers (Liuxi, Zhujiang and Shijing Rivers). Derivatization using pentafluorobenzoyl chloride (PFBOCl) and pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr) before GC-MS analysis were applied and optimized for phenolic compounds and acidic compounds, respectively. The target compounds were analyzed for river waters from the upstream to downstream of the Pearl Rivers. Phenolic compounds 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), bisphenol-A (BPA), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2) and triclosan (TCS) were detected at trace or low levels in the water samples from Liuxi River and Zhujiang River. Diethylstilbestrol (DES) was not detected in the Pearl Rivers. The highest concentrations of the phenolic compounds were found in Shijing River, and they were 3150 ng/L for 4-t-OP, 11,300 ng/L for 4-NP, 1040 ng/L for BPA, 79 ng/L for E1, 7.7 ng/L for E2 and 355 ng/L for TCS, respectively. Only a few acidic pharmaceuticals were detected at low concentrations in water from Liuxi River and Zhujiang River, but the highest concentrations for the acidic pharmaceuticals were also found in Shijing River. The highest concentrations detected for clofibric acid, ibuprofen, gemfibrozil, naproxen, mefenamic acid and diclofenac were 17 ng/L, 685 ng/L, 19.8 ng/L, 125 ng/L, 24.6 ng/l and 150 ng/L, respectively. The results suggest Liuxi and Zhujiang Rivers are only slightly contaminated and can be used as drinking water sources, but Shijing River is heavily polluted by the wastewater from nearby towns.     

The removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of receiving waters

A 5-month monitoring program was undertaken in South Wales in the UK to determine the fate of 55 pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs (PPCPs) in two contrasting wastewater plants utilising two different wastewater treatment technologies: activated sludge and trickling filter beds. The impact of treated wastewater effluent on the quality of receiving waters was also assessed.PPCPs were found to be present at high loads reaching 10 kg day⁻¹ in the raw sewage. Concentrations of PPCPs in raw sewage were found to correlate with their usage/consumption patterns in Wales and their metabolism. The efficiency of the removal of PPCPs was found to be strongly dependent on the technology implemented in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). In general, the WWTP utilising trickling filter beds resulted in, on average, less than 70% removal of all 55 PPCPs studied, while the WWTP utilising activated sludge treatment gave a much higher removal efficiency of over 85%. The monitoring programme revealed that treated wastewater effluents were the main contributors to PPCPs concentrations (up to 3 kg of PPCPs day⁻¹) in the rivers studied. Bearing in mind that in the cases examined here the WWTP effluents were also major contributors to rivers' flows (dilution factor for the studied rivers did not exceed 23 times) the effect of WWTP effluent on the quality of river water is significant and cannot be underestimated.     

Identification of estrogen-like effects and biologically active compounds in river water using bioassays and chemical analysis

The Nackdong River is the longest river in South Korea and passes through major cities that have several industrial complexes, including chemical, electric, and petrochemical complexes, and municipal characteristics such as apartment complexes. Along the river, the Gumi region has an electric industrial complex and an apartment complex that may be possible point sources of xenoestrogens such as phenolic compounds. To identify the causative chemicals for estrogenic activity in the river water of this region, bioassay-directed chemical analysis was performed. All samples from six sampling sites (an upstream point: S1; hot spot points: S2-1, S2-2, and S2-3; and downstream points: S3, and S4) showed estrogenic activity in the E-screen assay, with bio-EEQs (17β-E₂-equivalent quantities) ranging from 25.35-677.15 pg/L. Samples from S2-2, the sampling point downstream of the junction of stream water, and domestic and industrial wastewater, contained the highest estrogenic activity. Since the bio-EEQ of the organic acid fraction (F2) of the S2-2 sample had the highest activity (823.25 pg-EEQ/L) and F2 may contain phenolic compounds, GC-MS analyses for phenolic xenoestrogens were conducted with the organic acid fractions of the river water samples. Six estrogenic phenolic chemicals, 4-NP, BPA, 4-t-OP, 4-t-BP, 4-n-OP, and 4-n-HTP, were detected, with the highest concentrations (I-EEQ) found in S2-2 (231.80 pg/L). Among these phenolic chemicals, 4-NP was the most potent estrogen (bio-EEF; 8.12 × 10^− 5) and acted as a full agonist. Furthermore, 4-NP was present at levels (2.0 µg/L in S2-2) that can induce VTG induction in fish (>1 µg/L). In addition, we confirmed that river water (S2-2) significantly increased serum VTG levels in crucian carp (Carassius auratus) in a fish exposure experiment under laboratory conditions. Therefore, phenolic xenoestrogens, especially 4-NP, may be the main causative compounds responsible for the estrogenic effect on the Nackdong River.     

Perfluorinated contaminants in fur seal pups and penguin eggs from South Shetland, Antarctica

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have emerged as a new class of global environmental pollutants. In this study, the presence of perfluorochemicals (PFCs) in penguin eggs and Antarctic fur seals was reported for the first time. Tissue samples from Antarctic fur seal pups and penguin eggs were collected during the 2003/04 breeding season. Ten PFC contaminants were determined in seal and penguin samples. The PFC concentrations in seal liver were in the decreasing order, PFOS > PFNA > PFHpA > PFUnDA while in Adélie penguin eggs were PFHpA > PFUnDA > PFDA > PFDoDA, and in Gentoo penguin eggs were PFUnDA > PFOS > PFDoDA > PFHpA. The PFC concentrations differed significantly between seals and penguins (p < 0.005) and a species-specific difference was found between the two species of penguins (p < 0.005). In our study we found a mean concentration of PFOS in seal muscle and liver samples of 1.3 ng/g and 9.4 ng/g wet wt, respectively, and a mean concentration in Gentoo and Adélie penguin eggs of 0.3 ng/g and 0.38 ng/g wet wt, respectively. PFCs detected in penguin eggs and seal pups suggested oviparous and viviparous transfer of PFOS to eggs and off-springs.     

Selected personal care products and endocrine disruptors in biosolids: an Australia-wide survey

Personal care products (PCPs) and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are groups of organic contaminants that have been detected in biosolids around the world. There is a shortage of data on these types on compounds in Australian biosolids, making it difficult to gain an understanding of their potential risks in the environment following land application. In this study, 14 biosolids samples were collected from 13 Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to determine concentrations of eight compounds that are PCPs and/or EDCs: 4-t-octylphenol (4tOP), 4-nonylphenol (4NP), triclosan (TCS), bisphenol A (BPA), estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). Concentration data were evaluated to determine if there were any differences between samples that had undergone anaerobic or aerobic treatment. The concentration data were also compared to other Australian and international data. Only 4tOP, 4NP, TCS, and BPA were detected in all samples and E1 was detected in four of the 14 samples. Their concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 3.08 mg/kg, 0.35 to 513 mg/kg, < 0.01 to 11.2 mg/kg, < 0.01 to 1.47 mg/kg and < 45 to 370 μg/kg, respectively. The samples that were obtained from WWTPs that used predominantly anaerobic treatment showed significantly higher concentrations of the compounds than those obtained from WWTPs that used aerobic treatment. Overall, 4NP, TCS and BPA concentrations in Australian biosolids were lower than global averages (by 42%, 12% and 62%, respectively) and 4tOP concentrations were higher (by 25%), however, of these differences only that for BPA was statistically significant. The European Union limit value for NP in biosolids is 50 mg/kg, which 4 of the 14 samples in this study exceeded.     

Sediment mercury dynamics and historical trends of mercury deposition in the St. Lawrence River area of concern near Cornwall, Ontario, Canada

The St. Lawrence River near Cornwall, Ontario was designated an Area of Concern by the International Joint Commission in 1985. Sediments from this area have historically been contaminated with mercury (Hg), and although concentrations have decreased since the 1970s, they still remain high. Nine sediment cores were collected from three sites within the Area of Concern in 2004/05 to determine the variability in historical profiles of Hg deposition to the river. Sediment and pore water phases were analyzed for total mercury (THg) and methyl mercury (MeHg) and cores were analyzed for ²¹⁰Pb to determine chronologies of sedimentation at these sites. Mercury diffusion rates in pore waters within the sediment column were determined to be very low (between 0 and 2.15 ng cm^− 2 year^− 1, n = 3) compared to the recent Hg sedimentation rates at these sites (183 ± 30 ng cm^− 2 year^− 1 SE, n = 9) determined by multiplying surface Hg concentrations with ²¹⁰Pb-derived sedimentation rates. These results indicate that Hg profiles in these cores accurately depict historical releases of Hg to the river bed. The influence of federal regulations in the early 1970s to restrict Hg emissions to the river was apparent in these dated sediment cores, as were the closures of several local industries in the mid 1990s. Mercury accumulation rates prior to 1970 were 60 times higher than those occurring after 1995. Methyl mercury showed surface enrichment in most of these sediment cores providing evidence that mercury methylation occurred most rapidly near the sediment surface.     

Mercury in the Mackenzie River delta and estuary: Concentrations and fluxes during open-water conditions

Estimates of mercury (Hg) loadings to the Arctic Ocean from circumpolar rivers have not considered biogeochemical changes that occur when river water is temporarily stored in large deltas (delta effect). There are also few data describing Hg changes across the freshwater-saltwater transition zone (FSTZ) of these rivers. We assessed temporal changes in unfiltered total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations during open-water 2004 in the Mackenzie River upstream of the Mackenzie River delta, and in 6 floodplain lakes across an elevation gradient. These data were used to calculate Hg fluxes from the Mackenzie River and to evaluate a delta effect on Hg using an estimate of delta river water storage and a mixing analysis. Mean THg concentrations were highest in river water (9.17 ± 5.51 ng/L) and decreased up the lake elevation gradient. Mean MeHg concentrations were highest in lakes periodically connected to the river (0.213 ± 0.122 ng/L) and MeHg concentrations in elevated lakes showed a mid-summer peak. Results from the mixing analysis showed that the delta effect may be large enough to affect Hg loadings to the Arctic Ocean. THg concentrations exiting the delta (10.2 ng/L) were 16% lower than those entering (12.1 ng/L), whereas MeHg showed little change. We calculated 2.5-month (open-water) THg and MeHg fluxes from the Mackenzie River of 1208 and 8.4 kg. These fluxes are similar in magnitude to previous annual estimates in the arctic literature suggesting that previously published annual Hg fluxes from the Mackenzie River may be large underestimates. We also assessed changes in Mackenzie River water THg and MeHg concentrations as it crossed the FSTZ during an open-water cruise. THg decreased non-conservatively across the estuary from 3.8-0.6 ng/L, possibly due to mixing and particle settling. MeHg concentrations were variable and near detection. Our results show that the Mackenzie River estuary is a dynamic environment and may have important controls on Hg delivered to the Arctic Ocean.     

Elimination and fate of selected micro-organic pollutants in a full-scale anaerobic/anoxic/aerobic process combined with membrane bioreactor for municipal wastewater reclamation

The occurrence and elimination of 19 micro-organic pollutants including endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in a full-scale anaerobic/anoxic/aerobic-membrane bioreactor process was investigated. The investigated process achieved over 70% removal of the target EDCs and 50%–100% removal of most of the PPCPs, with influent concentration ranging from ng/L to μg/L. Three PPCPs, carbamazepine, diclofenac and sulpiride were not well removed, with the removal efficiency below 20%. A rough mass balance suggests that the targets were eliminated through sludge-adsorption and/or biodegradation, the former of which was particularly significant for the removal of hydrophobic compounds. The two-phase fate model was employed to describe the kinetics of sludge-adsorption and biodegradation. It was found that the fast sludge adsorption (indicated by mass-transfer rates greater than 10 for most compounds) is responsible for the rapid decline of the aqueous concentration of the targets in the first compartment of the treatment process (i.e. in the anaerobic tank). In contrast, the slow biodegradation proved to be the rate-determining step for the entire degradation process, and the rates are generally positively related to the dissolved oxygen level. On the other hand, this study showed that the removal rates of most targets can reach a quasi-plateau in 5 h under aerobic conditions, indicating that hydraulic retention time of ca. 5 h in aerobic tanks should be sufficient for the elimination of most targets.     

Occurrence of endocrine disrupting compounds in tissues and body fluids of Belgian dairy cows and its implications for the use of the cow as a model to study endocrine disruption

The reproductive performance of high producing dairy cows has dropped severely throughout the last decades. It has already been suggested that the presence of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the environment could be one of the reasons for this declining fertility. Reliable data concerning tissue and body fluid concentrations of these chemicals are thus crucial, but currently only scarcely available. Therefore, we selected dairy cows (≥ 6 years) from diverse locations in Belgium and analysed tissues (liver, adipose tissue, muscle, kidney, and ovaria) and body fluids (serum, follicular fluid, and milk) for their content of potential EDCs, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Furthermore, we collected milk and serum samples from high producing dairy cows 2-3 weeks post-partum to verify if the massive lipolysis required to sustain milk production is accompanied with an increase in EDC concentrations in milk and serum.Overall, contamination was very low (median sum PCBs liver: 11.7 ng g⁻¹ lw), with follicular fluid samples showing no detectable contamination. CB 153 was present in each tissue sample. Strong correlations could be found between EDCs in the same tissue. The increased PCB concentrations observed in milk samples from high producing dairy cows could indicate that massive lipolysis can play a role in liberating and thereby increasing EDC concentrations in milk.Because concentrations of the most prevalent EDCs in dairy cow tissues and body fluids are very low, exposure to EDCs can hardly be considered as a major cause of declining fertility in high producing dairy cows in Belgium. As a result of this low contamination and the similarities between the female bovine and human reproductive physiology, in vitro studies based on Belgian dairy cow ovarian follicles can be considered as a valuable model to study the effects of EDCs on human reproduction.     

Monitoring of lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel in placenta from an e-waste recycling town in China

Toxic heavy metals are released to the environment constantly from unregulated electronic waste (e-waste) recycling in Guiyu, China, and thus may contribute to the elevation of lead and other heavy metals levels in placenta. We aimed to investigate concentrations of heavy metals, including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) in placenta from Guiyu and compared them with those from a control area where no e-waste processing occurs. Two hundred and twenty human placentas were collected from Guiyu (n = 101) and the control area (n = 119). The placenta concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni (PCPb, PCCd, PCCr, and PCNi) were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). Risk factors of high exposure and correlation with adverse pregnancy outcomes were analyzed using Spearman correlation analyses. PCPb from Guiyu ranged from 6.51 to 3465.16 ng/g with a median of 301.43 ng/g, whereas PCPb from the control area ranged from 4.53 to 3176.12 ng/g with a median of 165.82 ng/g (P = 0.010). We also observed that in Guiyu, 41.6% of women (42/101) had PCPb > 500 ng/g wt (wet weight), compared with 24.4% of women (29/119) in the control area (P = 0.006). No significant differences of PCCd and PCCr were found between the two groups. In contrast, PCNi was higher in samples from the control area (median 14.30, range 1.76-593.70 ng/g) than in Guiyu samples (median 7.64, range 1.19-1108.99 ng/g) (P = 0.000), and a negative correlation between PCNi and gestational age was found in this study (P = 0.017). Spearman correlation analyses showed that there was correlation between PCPb and residence in e-waste recycling area. Environmental pollution, resulted from unregulated e-waste recycling activities, may contribute to elevated PCPb in neonates born in Guiyu and threaten their health.     

Occurrence of steroid estrogens, endocrine-disrupting phenols, and acid pharmaceutical residues in urban riverine water of the Pearl River Delta, South China

A scoping study was conducted to investigate the residues of nineteen pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), including 4 natural and 3 synthetic steroid estrogens, 7 endocrine-disrupting phenols, and 5 acid pharmaceuticals in three urban streams and the Major Pearl River at Guangzhou, a megapolis in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Estrone was detected in >60% water samples with a maximum concentration of 65 ng L(-1). Endocrine-disrupting phenols (nonylphenol, bisphenol A, triclosan, 2-phenylphenol, methyparaben, and propylparaben) were found to be widely present at rather high concentrations in the urban riverine water of Guangzhou. Salicylic acid, clofibric acid and ibuprofen were detected in most water samples with maximum concentrations of 2098, 248 and 1417 ng L(-1) respectively, whereas naproxen was less frequently detected and also at lower concentration. Both the detection frequencies and median concentrations of the PPCPs appeared higher during the low-flow season than during the high-flow season. The seasonal difference in PPCPs occurrence was probably attributed to the dilution effect caused by the rainfall. PPCPs in the urban riverine water of Guangzhou originated mainly from random discharge and/or leakage of municipal wastewater. PPCPs contamination in the Major Pearl River may be of a potential environmental issue, especially during the low-flow season.     

Runoff of pharmaceuticals and personal care products following application of dewatered municipal biosolids to an agricultural field

Municipal biosolids are a useful source of nutrients for crop production, and commonly used in agriculture. In this field study, we applied dewatered municipal biosolids at a commercial rate using broadcast application followed by incorporation. Precipitation was simulated at 1, 3, 7, 21 and 34 days following the application on 2 m² microplots to evaluate surface runoff of various pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), namely atenolol, carbamazepine, cotinine, caffeine, gemfibrozil, naproxen, ibuprofen, acetaminophen, sulfamethoxazole, triclosan and triclocarban. There was little temporal coherence in the detection of PPCPs in runoff, various compounds being detected maximally on days 1, 3, 7 or 36. Maximum concentrations in runoff ranged from below detection limit (gemfibrozil) to 109.7 ng L^− 1 (triclosan). Expressing the total mass exported as a percentage of that applied, some analytes revealed little transport potential (< 1% exported; triclocarban, triclosan, sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen, naproxen and gemfibrozil) whereas others were readily exported (> 1% exported; acetaminophen, carbamazepine, caffeine, cotinine, atenolol). Those compounds with little transport potential had log K_ow values of 3.18 or greater, whereas those that were readily mobilized had K_ow values of 2.45 or less. Maximal concentrations of all analytes were below toxic concentrations using a variety of endpoints available in the literature. In summary, this study has quantified the transport potential in surface runoff of PPCPs from land receiving biosolids, identified that log K_ow may be a determinant of runoff transport potential of these analytes, and found maximal concentrations of all chemicals tested to be below toxic concentrations using a variety of endpoints.     

Real-time PCR detection of adenoviruses, polyomaviruses, and torque teno viruses in river water in Japan

The prevalence of DNA viruses in water from the Tamagawa River, Japan was quantitatively surveyed for 6 months, from April to September 2003. A total of 18 river water samples were subjected to virus concentration method using an electronegative membrane, followed by DNA extraction and direct quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for DNA viruses. Adenoviruses of serotypes 40 and 41 were detected most frequently in the river water samples tested (61.1%), at a concentration ranging from 3.16 × 10³ to 1.38 × 10⁵ copies/l, followed by JC polyomaviruses (11.1%) and torque teno viruses (5.6%). No sample was positive for BK polyomaviruses. In addition, for selective detection of virus particles, adenoviruses 40 and 41 were tested with qPCR combined with an immunomagnetic separation technique; they were detected in only 16.7% of the samples, showing a concentration ranging from 7.42 × 10² to 4.24 × 10⁴ copies/l. This study is significant since it is the first study to demonstrate the prevalence of polyomaviruses in water samples in Japan and to use immunomagnetic separation qPCR to detect adenovirus particles in aquatic environments.     

Occurrence, molecular characterization and antibiogram of water quality indicator bacteria in river water serving a water treatment plant

Water pollution by microorganisms of fecal origin is a current world-wide public health concern. Total coliforms, fecal coliforms (Escherichia coli) and enterococci are indicators commonly used to assess the microbiological safety of water resources. In this study, influent water samples and treated water were collected seasonally from a water treatment plant and two major water wells in a Black Belt county of Alabama and evaluated for water quality indicator bacteria. Influent river water samples serving the treatment plant were positive for total coliforms, fecal coliforms (E. coli), and enterococci. The highest number of total coliform most probable number (MPN) was observed in the winter (847.5 MPN/100 mL) and the lowest number in the summer (385.6 MPN/100 mL). Similarly E. coli MPN was substantially higher in the winter (62.25 MPN/100 mL). Seasonal variation of E. coli MPN in influent river water samples was strongly correlated with color (R² = 0.998) and turbidity (R² = 0.992). Neither E. coli nor other coliform type bacteria were detected in effluent potable water from the treatment plant. The MPN of enterococci was the highest in the fall and the lowest in the winter. Approximately 99.7 and 51.5 enterococci MPN/100 mL were recorded in fall and winter seasons respectively. One-way ANOVA tests revealed significant differences in seasonal variation of total coliforms (P < 0.05), fecal coliforms (P < 0.01) and enterococci (P < 0.01). Treated effluent river water samples and well water samples revealed no enterococci contamination. Representative coliform bacteria selected by differential screening on Coliscan Easygel were identified by 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence analysis. E. coli isolates were sensitive to gentamicin, trimethoprim/sulfamethazole, ciprofloxacin, vancomycin, tetracycline, ampicillin, cefixime, and nitrofurantoin. Nonetheless, isolate BO-54 displayed decreased sensitivity compared to other E. coli isolates. Antibiotic sensitivity pattern can be employed in microbial source tracking.     

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water in South Wales, UK

The presence and fate of 56 pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs (PPCPs) were investigated in the South Wales region of the UK. Two contrasting rivers: River Taff and River Ely were chosen for this investigation and were monitored for a period of 10 months. The impact of the factors affecting the levels of concentration of PPCPs and illicit drugs in surface water such as surrounding area, proximity to wastewater effluent and weather conditions, mainly rainfall was also investigated. Most PPCPs were frequently found in river water at concentrations reaching single microgL(-1) and their levels depended mainly on the extent of water dilution resulting from rainfall. Discharge of treated wastewater effluent into the river course was found to be the main cause of water contamination with PPCPs. The most frequently detected PPCPs represent the group of pharmaceuticals dispensed at the highest levels in the Welsh community. These were antibacterial drugs (trimethoprim, erythromycin-H(2)O and amoxicillin), anti-inflammatories/analgesics (paracetamol, tramadol, codeine, naproxen, ibuprofen and diclofenac) and antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine and gabapentin). Only four PPCPs out of 56 (simvastatin, pravastatin, digoxin and digoxigenin) were not quantified over the course of the study. Several PPCPs were found to be both ubiquitous and persistent in the aqueous environment (e.g. erythromycin-H(2)O, codeine, carbamazepine, gabapentin and valsartan). The calculated average daily loads of PPCPs indicated that in total almost 6 kg of studied PPCPs are discharged daily into the studied rivers. The illicit drugs studied were found in rivers at low levels of ng L(-1). Average daily loads of amphetamine, cocaine and its main metabolite benzoylecgonine were as follows: 8, 1.2 and 39 gday(-1), respectively. Their frequent occurrence in surface water is primarily associated with their high illegal usage and is strongly associated with the discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater effluent.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface and treated waters of Louisiana,USA and Ontario,Canada

A newly developed analytical method was used to measure concentrations of nine pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in samples from two surface water bodies, a sewage treatment plant effluent and various stages of a drinking water treatment plant in Louisiana, USA, and from one surface water body, a drinking water treatment plant and a pilot plant in Ontario, Canada. The analytical method provides for simultaneous extraction and quantification of the following broad range of PPCPs and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: naproxen; ibuprofen; estrone; 17beta-estradiol; bisphenol A; clorophene; triclosan; fluoxetine; and clofibric acid. Naproxen was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 81-106 ng/l and Louisiana and Ontario surface waters at 22-107 ng/l. Triclosan was detected in Louisiana sewage treatment plant effluent at 10-21 ng/l. Of the three surface waters sampled, clofibric acid was detected in Detroit River water at 103 ng/l, but not in Mississippi River or Lake Pontchartrain waters. None of the other target analytes were detected above their method detection limits. Based on results at various stages of treatment, conventional drinking-water treatment processes (coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation) plus continuous addition of powdered activated carbon at a dosage of 2 mg/l did not remove naproxen from Mississippi River waters. However, chlorination, ozonation and dual media filtration processes reduced the concentration of naproxen below detection in Mississippi River and Detroit River waters and reduced clofibric acid in Detroit River waters. Results of this study demonstrate that existing water treatment technologies can effectively remove certain PPCPs. In addition, our study demonstrates the importance of obtaining data on removal mechanisms and byproducts associated with PPCPs and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals in drinking water and sewage treatment processes.     

Monitoring of opiates, cannabinoids and their metabolites in wastewater, surface water and finished water in Catalonia, Spain

The occurrence of several opiates and cannabinoids in wastewaters and surface waters has been investigated. Most of the compounds (8 out of 11) were identified in both influent and effluents of fifteen wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Codeine, morphine, EDDP and methadone were detected in almost all samples with median values of 69 ng/L; 63 ng/L; 28 ng/L and 18 ng/L, respectively, whereas the main cannabinoid metabolite THC-COOH presented a median value of 57 ng/L in influents. A rough estimate of heroin and cannabis consumption was performed from the analysis of target urinary metabolites in wastewater influents. Data obtained from influents of rural and urban WWTPs gave 0.07% of heroin consumption (0.67% for the largest urban WWTP) and 4% consumption of cannabinoids, respectively for the population aged between 15 and 64 years old. The presence of opiates and cannabinoids in surface waters used for drinking water production showed the presence of the same compounds identified in wastewater effluents at concentrations up to 76 ng/L for codeine; 31 ng/L for EDDP; 12 ng/L for morphine and 9 ng/L for methadone at the intake of the DWTP. A complete removal of all studied drugs present in surface water was achieved during the potabilization process except for methadone and EDDP (91% and 87% removal, respectively).