Going international? Risk taking by cryptomarket drug vendors

BackgroundSince 2011, we have witnessed the rise of ‘dark net’ drug marketplaces known as cryptomarkets. Cryptomarkets operate on the same model as eBay as they provide a platform where authorized vendors can set up a virtual shop and place listings. Building on a growing body of literature that seeks to understand cryptomarket participants, this paper seeks to explain the decision of cryptomarket vendors to take on risk.MethodsWe collected data on Silk Road 1 (SR1), the first cryptomarket launched in 2011. We propose a multilevel model that takes into account the characteristics of listings, vendors and their environment to explain the decision of vendors to take on risk.ResultsOur results demonstrate that all levels in the model significantly explain the decision to take on risk. Risk taking, operationalized as a willingness to ship drugs across international borders, was associated with the weights of drug packages mailed, the vendors’ reputations and numbers of listings, the country-level perceived effectiveness of law enforcement according to experts, and the opportunities available to vendors as measured by the wealth and the drug expenditures of potential customers.ConclusionsOur results support some previous research findings on the factors explaining risk taking. We extend existing literature by emphasizing the relevance of the environment of drug dealers to predict risk taking.     

#Drugsforsale: An exploration of the use of social media and encrypted messaging apps to supply and access drugs

BackgroundThe use of new technology is frequently harnessed by drug suppliers to both increase profits and reduce risk. While a growing body of research has investigated drug sales through online pharmacies and cryptomarkets, despite growing media interest, no published research exists on how smartphone-enabled social media and messaging applications (‘apps’) are utilised in the drug economy. This study analyses the ways such apps (e.g. Snapchat, Instagram and WhatsApp) are utilised to supply and access drugs.MethodsThree data collection methods were employed: an international online survey of 358 drug users that had either used or considered using apps to access drugs; ‘rapid’ interviews (n = 20) with a similar population; and in-depth interviews (n = 27). Key issues explored were the perceived benefits and risks associated with sourcing drugs through apps, with specific attention paid to novel supply and purchasing practices.ResultsApps appear to provide a quick, convenient method for connecting buyer and seller. They were often viewed as a valuable intermediary option between cryptomarkets and street dealing, providing ‘secure’ features and the opportunity to preview product without the requirement for technical expertise. Apps are used in a range of novel and diverse ways, including as social networking spaces in which drugs are advertised, and as encrypted messaging services for communicating with known sellers and arranging transactions. Key anxieties related to potential for exposure to law enforcement and legitimacy of substances.ConclusionThough ‘social supply’ through friends is still typically preferred and there is a degree of wariness toward app-mediated supply, our data indicate that apps are fast becoming a viable option for accessing drugs. Apps can provide an easily accessible platform that connects buyers with commercial drug suppliers and substances that may otherwise remain elusive. Potential harms can be reduced through the provision of information which demystify common-sense assumptions that apps are secure and that this ‘visual’ drug economy promotes safer purchasing practices.     

Delivery dilemmas: How drug cryptomarket users identify and seek to reduce their risk of detection by law enforcement

BackgroundCryptomarkets represent an important drug market innovation by bringing buyers and sellers of illegal drugs together in a ‘hidden’ yet public online marketplace. We ask: How do cryptomarket drug sellers and buyers perceive the risks of detection and arrest, and attempt to limit them?MethodsWe analyse selected texts produced by vendors operating on the first major drug cryptomarket, Silk Road (N = 600) alongside data extracted from the marketplace discussion forum that include buyer perspectives. We apply Fader’s (2016) framework for understanding how drug dealers operating ‘offline’ attempt to reduce the risk of detection and arrest: visibility reduction, charge reduction and risk distribution.ResultsWe characterize drug transactions on cryptomarkets as ‘stretched’ across time, virtual and physical space, and handlers, changing the location and nature of risks faced by cryptomarket users. The key locations of risk of detection and arrest by law enforcement were found in ‘offline’ activities of cryptomarket vendors (packaging and delivery drop-offs) and buyers (receiving deliveries). Strategies in response involved either creating or disrupting routine activities in line with a non-offending identity. Use of encrypted communication was seen as ‘good practice’ but often not employed. ‘Drop shipping’ allowed some Silk Road vendors to sell illegal drugs without the necessity of handling them.ConclusionSilk Road participants neither viewed themselves as immune to, nor passively accepting of, the risk of detection and arrest. Rational choice theorists have viewed offending decisions as constrained by limited access to relevant information. Cryptomarkets as ‘illicit capital’ sharing communities provide expanded and low-cost access to information enabling drug market participants to make more accurate assessments of the risk of apprehension. The abundance of drug market intelligence available to those on both sides of the law may function to speed up innovation in illegal drug markets, as well as necessitate and facilitate the development of law enforcement responses.     

Results of an international drug testing service for cryptomarket users

IntroductionUser surveys indicate that expectations of higher drug purity are a key reason for cryptomarket use. In 2014–2015, Spain's NGO Energy Control conducted a 1-year pilot project to provide a testing service to cryptomarket drug users using the Transnational European Drug Information (TEDI) guidelines. In this paper, we present content and purity data from the trial.Methods219 samples were analyzed by gas chromatography associated with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Users were asked to report what substance they allegedly purchased.Results40 different advertised substances were reported, although 77.6% were common recreational drugs (cocaine, MDMA, amphetamines, LSD, ketamine, cannabis). In 200 samples (91.3%), the main result of analysis matched the advertised substance. Where the advertised compound was detected, purity levels (m ± SD) were: cocaine 71.6 ± 19.4%; MDMA (crystal) 88.3 ± 1.4%; MDMA (pills) 133.3 ± 38.4 mg; Amphetamine (speed) 51.3 ± 33.9%; LSD 123.6 ± 40.5 μg; Cannabis resin THC: 16.5 ± 7.5% CBD: 3.4 ± 1.5%; Ketamine 71.3 ± 38.4%. 39.8% of cocaine samples contained the adulterant levamisole (11.6 ± 8%). No adulterants were found in MDMA and LSD samples.DiscussionThe largest collection of test results from drug samples delivered from cryptomarkets are reported in this study. Most substances contained the advertised ingredient and most samples were of high purity. The representativeness of these results is unknown.     

药品不良反应报告184例分析

目的探讨该院药品不良反应(ADR)报告发生规律和特点。方法对184例ADR报告进行回顾性分析。结果 184例ADR中,由抗微生物药物引起的ADR居首位137例(64.0%);ADR临床表现以皮肤及附件损害最为常见183例(52.7%);严重的ADR16例(8.7%);由静脉滴注给药引起ADR最多[167例(78.0%)]。结论 ADR监测工作仍需努力改进,报告的例数和质量有待提高;加强合理用药以减少和避免ADR的发生,不断提高用药安全和ADR监测技术。     

Ring and bring drug services: Delivery dealing and the social life of a drug phone

BackgroundIllegal drug dealers no longer compete for customers only through the quality of their products, but also in convenience and speed of delivery. This article investigates "ring and bring" drug dealing, and argues that a focus on dealers' use of mobile phones is useful for exploring current changes within retail level drug markets.MethodsThe article is based on 21 face-to-face in-depth interviews with active drug dealers in Denmark all of whom were involved in the delivery of drugs (mainly cannabis and cocaine) often to buyers' homes.ResultsContrary to studies emphasising how drug dealers often take up new communication technologies with enthusiasm, the dealers in this study displayed a technological conservatist stance. Moreover, mobile phones have become key to dealers' construction of in-group hierarchies, and have led to retail level drug selling becoming more flexible, individualised and more of a service on par with other services in the consumer society. Finally, the increasing use of mobile phones has also created a situation where portfolios of drug customers, held on cell phone SIM cards, are today traded and sold alongside other commodities in the drug economy.ConclusionWe show how a social constructivist approach to technology can provide a more detailed and nuanced account of the socio-technical ensemble and the meaning-making processes giving shape to retail level "delivery dealing."     

Adolescent stigma towards drug addiction: Effects of age and drug use behaviour

The objective of this study was to examine adolescent age and experience with drug use on stigmatizing attitudes toward drug addiction. Data were derived from the  2005 cycle of the Ontario Student Drug Use Survey. In total, 4078, 7- to 12-graders completed self-administered questionnaires that included a measure of drug abuse stigma. Results indicated that stigma scores were higher among younger than older adolescents, and the decline across age was robust, occurring among both males and females and those from rural and non-rural areas. The decline, however, was stronger among non-drug users and among those who had no close friends that use drugs. Despite the age-related decline, the level of stigma in general suggested that drug abuse stigma may continue into adulthood. Findings highlight that individual attitudes toward drug use and drug abusers are salient factors for personal drug use. Given that stigma is a barrier to treatment, but reduced stigma may encourage greater adolescent use, this study highlights the need for more in-depth studies of drug stigma.     

我院开展药物咨询工作调查分析

目的总结该院药物咨询工作情况,提高药物咨询服务质量。方法回顾性分析该院2009年12月-2010年12月856次药物咨询资料,并进行分类整理,对咨询者身份、咨询内容及咨询药物的类别做出分析和总结。结果药物咨询对象以患者及家属居多,占82.01%;咨询内容以药品用法用量、不良反应为主,分别占30.14%、21.61%;咨询药品类型主要以抗生素类及心脑血管类药物为主,分别占25.12%、19.39%。结论药物咨询工作的开展为患者用药的安全性、有效性及合理性提供了有利保障,真正体现了＂以患者为中心＂的服务理念,是目前医疗改革的一个重要措施。     

Changes in patterns of drug injection concurrent with a sustained reduction in the availability of heroin in Australia

Between 1996 and 2000, heroin was the drug most frequently injected in Australia, and viable heroin markets existed in six of Australia's eight jurisdictions. In 2001, there was a dramatic and sustained reduction in the availability of heroin that was accompanied by a substantial increase in its price, and a 14% decline in the average purity of seizures analysed by forensic laboratories. The shortage of heroin constitutes a unique natural experiment within which to examine the impact of supply reduction. This paper reviews one important correlate of the shortage, namely changes in patterns of illicit drug injection. A number of studies have consistently suggested that between 2000 and 2001, there was a sizeable decrease in both prevalence and frequency of heroin injection among injecting drug users. These changes were accompanied by increased prevalence and frequency of stimulant injection. Cocaine was favoured in NSW, the sole jurisdiction in which a cocaine market was established prior to the heroin shortage; whereas methamphetamine predominated in other jurisdictions. Some data suggest that, at least in the short-term, some drug injectors left the market altogether subsequent to the reduced heroin availability. However, the findings that (1) some former heroin users switched their drug preference to a stimulant; and (2) subsequently attributed this change to the reduced availability of heroin, suggests that reducing the supply of one drug may serve to increase the use of others. Given the differential harms associated with the use of stimulants and opiates, this possibility has grave implications for Australia, where the intervention and treatment system is designed primarily to accommodate opiate use and dependence.     

门诊慢性病患者药物咨询情况分析

目的分析我院门诊慢性病(高血压、糖尿病)患者药物咨询的开展情况,探讨提高药物咨询质量的办法。方法抽查门诊慢性病患者药物咨询报告,以咨询的方式、咨询的内容和咨询的结果满意度等作为考察的指标,并进行回顾性分析。结果患者对药物选择信息的咨询占总咨询量的27.44%;对药物基本信息的咨询占47.99%,对药品相关信息的咨询占13.00%;其他信息的咨询占11.57%。结论药物咨询是慢性病患者获得用药信息的重要途径,也是提高医院药学服务质量、促进合理用药的有效办法。     

Changes in patterns of drug use among injecting drug users following changes in the availability of heroin in New South Wales, Australia

The aim of this study was to examine changes in drug use patterns among groups of injecting drug users (IDU) who remained in the drug market during a period of reduced heroin availability in NSW, Australia. Cross-sectional data collected from regular IDU interviewed as part of the NSW Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) between 1996 - 2003 were analysed. Drug use patterns, reported drug availability and price were assessed. There was a marked decrease in the frequency of heroin use during the period of reduced availability in 2001, with some increase in 2002 and 2003. Heroin availability and frequency of use have not returned to levels reported prior to 2001; however; even at the peak of the reduction in supply, users continued to access heroin. There was a significant shift among IDU from heroin to cocaine during 2001, which subsequently reversed. The availability of cocaine has fluctuated in recent years, but the price has remained stable. The price of heroin appeared to be more responsive to market fluctuations, and co-varied with heroin availability. IDU used cocaine when heroin was less available; however, patterns of cocaine use were not maintained. The frequency of heroin use remained lower, which may be indicative of a less consistent supply, increased price or increased numbers of IDU entering treatment. The reduced supply of heroin in 2001 highlighted the adaptable nature of IDU patterns of use, indicative of the need for a commensurate treatment response. It also highlighted the importance of the ongoing monitoring of drug trends in Australia. [Roxburgh A, Degenhardt L, Breen C. Changes in patterns of drug use among injecting drug users following changes in the availability of heroin in New South Wales, Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2004;23:287-294]     

Adolescent ecstasy and other drug use in the National Survey of Parents and Youth: the role of sensation-seeking, parental monitoring and peer's drug use

The association between high sensation-seeking, close friends' drug use and low parental monitoring with ecstasy (MDMA) use in adolescence was examined in a sample of US household-dwelling adolescents aged 12-18 years (N=5049). We also tested whether associations were of stronger magnitude than associations between these correlates and marijuana or alcohol/tobacco use in adolescence. Data from Round 2 of the National Survey of Parents and Youth (NSPY) Restricted Use Files (RUF) was analyzed via Jackknife weighted multinomial logistic regression models. High sensation-seekers were more likely to be ecstasy, marijuana, and alcohol/tobacco users, respectively, as compared to low sensation-seekers. High sensation-seeking and close friends' drug use were more strongly associated with ecstasy as compared to marijuana and alcohol/tobacco use. Low parental monitoring was associated with marijuana use and alcohol/tobacco use and there was a trend for it to be associated with ecstasy use. Ecstasy use is strongly associated with peer drug use and more modestly associated with high sensation-seeking. School prevention programs should target high-sensation-seeking adolescents and also encourage them to affiliate with non-drug using peers.     

The cost of drug use in adolescence: Young people, money and substance abuse

It is now common for young people in full-time compulsory education to hold part-time jobs. However, while the 1990s experienced a rise in illicit drug use particularly among young people and an increase in the level of interest in identifying factors associated with drug use, little attention has been paid to the influence of the money young people have to spend and its potential links with drug use. Four thousand five hundred and twenty-four young people living in Northern Ireland completed a questionnaire in school year 10 (aged 13/14 years). The findings suggested that there was a positive association between the amount of money young people received (and its source) and higher rates of drug use. The study concludes that money, and how it is spent by young people, may be an important factor for consideration when investigating drug use during adolescence. The findings may help inform drug prevention strategies, particularly through advice on money management, and taking responsibility for their own money.     

The Melding of Drug Markets in Houston After Katrina: Dealer and User Perspectives

In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the majority of routine activities in New Orleans were disrupted, including the illegal drug market. The large-scale relocation of New Orleans evacuees (NOEs), including many illegal drug users and sellers, to host cities led to a need for new sources of illegal drugs. This need was quickly satisfied by two initially distinct drug markets (1) drug dealers from New Orleans who were themselves evacuees and (2) established drug dealers in the host cities. To be expected, the two markets did not operate indefinitely in parallel fashion. This paper describes the evolving, operational relationship between these two drug markets over time, with a focus on Houston. We analyze the reciprocal evolution of these two markets at two significant points in time: at the beginning of the relocation (2005) and two years later (2007). The overall trend is towards a melding of the two drug markets, as evidenced primarily by decreases in drug-related violence and the cross-fertilization of drug tastes. We describe the process by which the two drug markets are melded over time, in order to seek a better understanding of the social processes by which drug markets in general evolve.