Reflections on introspection.

Reviews theoretical positions on introspection and its methods and the validity of the observations gained. Whether introspection is a method at all, whether one can be trained to perform introspection, and what the results of the process are, are discussed. Introspection as data and introspection as a method are distinguished; "data" refers to the statements or reports of introspection which can be used and measured as can any behavior. Introspection as method, however, involves "data" accessible only by observation. Several classifications of introspective methods are proposed (self-observation, self-reports, and thinking aloud) and related to historical definitions of psychology (e.g., W. Wundt, E. B. Titchener, and J. B. Watson). It is concluded that arguments about introspection and its methods are merely a question of what one is interested in; introspection is a technique which yields information that cannot be obtained in another way and arguments over its validity or definition are theoretically unhelpful. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on the main schools of the world psychology in the Czech interwar psychology.

The author deals with the reasons for the different level of acceptance of the three important psychological perspectives (Gestalt psychology, behaviorism, and psychoanalysis) in the Czech interwar psychology. Gestalt psychology was probably the most accepted approach, which was at least partly caused by its founding in the neighboring Germany. It was an academic perspective that was convenient for the professional ambitions of its representatives as well as for their endeavor to establish psychology as a serious scientific discipline. On the contrary, the acceptance of behaviorism was rather negative or indifferent. Czech psychologists perceived it as a predominantly foreign, extraneous school of thinking. They preferred the studies on consciousness and the method of introspection over empirical research. Psychoanalysis also has never taken deeper roots in Czechoslovakia. Some Czech intellectuals accepted the existence of unconsciousness but they criticized Freudian sexual symbolism (Peroutka, ?apek). Negative attitudes of the politicians Masaryk and Bene? also contributed to the cool reception of this school. With sporadic exceptions, the psychoanalytic thinking was developed only in a small Jewish-German-Czech circle. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on Gough's "Reflections."

Examines H. Gough's (see record 1971-25138-001) reflections on the meaning of psychodiagnosis (PD). The present author states that his understanding of PD derives from a different framework from Gough, stemming from Rorschach's (1921) book and his psychodiagnostic work and techniques involving projectives as used by clinicians subsequently. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical implications of adolescent introspection.

Explores the nature and development of introspective activity during adolescence. Topics addressed include the relationships among introspection, cognition, and ego identity development; defensive vs adaptive forms of introspection; the function of introspection in borderline and narcissistic adolescents; and the use of a patient"s introspective capacities as a therapeutic tool. The therapist"s need to be sensitive to the tension in adolescents between the benefits of introspection and the anxiety it may engender is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A return to introspectionism?

Comments on J. E. Royce's (see record 1974-11157-001) discussion of monism–dualism in philosophy, noting that Skinner's (1971) concept of "autonomous man" was dualist in nature and that a model of quantum mechanics proposed by H. Everett (1957) has an introspection component. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on contributions.

States that the Principles for Education and Training for Organizational Consulting Psychology establish the framework to significantly advance the overall quality of professional preparation in the field. This synopsis provides reflections on the conceptual articles and reaction pieces contained in this special issue of Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research: D. R. Fuqua and J. L. Newman (see record 2003-04049-004), W. B. Johnson (see record 2003-04049-005), S. L. Shullman (see record 2003-04049-006), J. A. Cummings (see record 2003-04049-007), and W. J. Campbell (see record 2003-04049-008). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Revisioning the unconscious.

Discusses K. S. Bowers's (see record 1988-16849-001) justification of the Freudian approach to unconscious mental activity, implicit criticism of introspection as a source of information about what is in the mind, and morality play about the devil. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introspecting in the spirit of William James: Comment on Fox, Ericsson, and Best (2011).

Fox, Ericsson, and Best's (2011) thoughtful justification of the use of think-aloud protocols for revealing the stream of consciousness comes on the centennial of the death of William James, history's greatest practitioner and advocate of introspection. This confluence naturally invites speculation about how James might have responded to the analysis of Fox et al. I suggest that although James would likely view the think-aloud procedure as a scientifically rigorous form of introspection, he would also admonish us not to overlook its limitations. Most notably, although the think-aloud procedure readily captures substantive verbal thoughts, it is less able to capture inchoate cognitions. The conclusion that verbal protocols are nonreactive also raises several additional issues. First, the nonreactivity of thinking aloud does not necessarily speak to its validity. Second, the conclusion that verbal protocols are benign is at odds with recent findings in which verbalization impairs performance on various tasks. I suggest that whereas James might express some concerns regarding aspects of conscious thought that may be overlooked by the think-aloud procedure as well as some caution regarding the possible situations in which thinking aloud might still be reactive, he would almost certainly be pleased to see introspection finally getting the scientific grounding that it deserves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on the commenters' views.

In response to the comments that followed my article, I explain my agreement with the commenters' positions that (a) feminists take differing positions on similarities and differences between the sexes, (b) the science and politics of gender are intertwined and inseparable, and (c) sex-related differences show a wide range of magnitudes in research findings. Also, I note my disagreement with the commenters by maintaining that (a) the effects of psychological treatments that were aggregated by M. W. Lipsey and D. B. Wilson (see record 1994-18340-001) are not representative of all psychological findings, (b) quantitative syntheses of research test theories of sex-related differences and derive from detailed analyses of research reports, and (c) feminism has strongly influenced the scientific consensus about sex-related differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

For the love of working on play: Comment on Tinsley and Eldredge (1995).

H. E. A. Tinsley and B. D. Eldredge (see record 1995-27399-001), using sound instrumentation and large samples, developed a need-based taxonomy of leisure activities that enlarges counseling psychology's understanding of both the leisure experience and psychological needs. This study and other studies of psychological needs can benefit from the comparability afforded by a consensus set of higher order need dimensions. This study points up 2 important developments in counseling psychology (and the rest of psychology as well): the use of latent variables to construe "mind" and the use of the questionnaire to instrument introspection. By their sustained study of the leisure experience, Tinsley and his colleagues have helped to add the knowledge of "play" (E. S. Bordin, 1994) to the counseling psychologist's more extensive knowledge of work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Political correctness: Reflections on a political debate.

Comments on the articles of J. J. Furedy (see record 199801996-002), O. E. Favreau (see record 199801996-003), H. J. Klatt (see record 199801996-004), C. Stark (see record 199801996-005), and D. Kimura (see record 199801996-006), on the multifaceted topics surrounding political correctness in academia, including academic freedom, and women's issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behaviorism and the mind: A (limited) call for a return to introspection.

Comments that perhaps few psychologists would now describe themselves as strict behaviorists; however, a review of the literature suggests that methodological and radical behaviorism continue to exert a powerful influence on current research, even in such nominally cognitive areas as imagery and hypothesis learning. In many ways this influence has been healthy, leading to a productive emphasis on the importance of environmental variables in shaping behavior, but some of its consequences have been rather less benign. After reviewing the historical arguments against the use of introspection, the author concludes that most either are invalid or no longer possess their original force, so the benefits from a wider use of introspection now seem likely to outweigh the possible costs. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on surfaces: A cross-disciplinary reply to Stevens.

Replies to K. A. Stevens's (see record 1985-08519-001) comments on the present author and R. T. Millard's (see record 1985-08483-001) article on the contributions of gradient to the viewer's perception of surface. The present author suggests that new interest in surface perception can be found in both psychological and in artificial intelligence communities. Certain working principles common to the different methodologies are discussed. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on the state of Greek psychology.

Responds to the articles by J. C. Bouhoutsos and K. V. Roe (see record 1984-26827-001) and by P. Vanger (see record 1987-00005-001) describing clinical and academic psychology in Greece as underdeveloped. The present author explains why developments have been delayed, and recent developments are not discernible to both outsiders and those who are part of the processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology as the behaviorist views it.

(This partially reprinted article originally appeared in Psychological Review, 1913, Vol 20, 158–277.) Notes that psychology has failed to make good its claim as a natural science, due to a mistaken notion that introspection is the only direct method of ascertaining facts. Psychology, as the behaviorist views it, is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science that needs introspection as much as do chemistry and physics. The behavior of humans and the behavior of animals must be considered on the same plane, as being equally essential to a general understanding of behavior. The elimination of states of consciousness as proper objects of investigation in themselves will remove the barrier from psychology that exists between it and the other sciences. Psychology as behavior will have to neglect but few of the really essential problems with which psychology as an introspective science concerns itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on the EPPP: A commentary on Sharpless and Barber.

In their article “The EPPP in the Era of Evidence-Based Practice,” B. A. Sharpless and J. P. Barber (see record 2009-11890-004) shine a critical spotlight on the standardized exam for professional psychology licensure. Yet their arguments are based on some inaccurate assumptions about the purpose and the validity of the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP). In this critical response paper, we focus on several areas of disagreement with Sharpless and Barber, including the purpose of the EPPP, reflections on its validity and failure rates, and the need for generic versus specialized entry-level professional licensure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on "Professionalism within school psychology."

Discusses T. D. Oakland's (see record 1987-13985-001) concerns about professionalism in school psychology, which are interpreted as centering on problems of school psychologists' morale and pride in their work and in their identity. Based on the suggestion that many of these problems may be due to school psychology being too narrowly defined to allow its practitioners sufficient professional mobility and opportunities to apply all their knowledge and skills, the concept of human services psychology is proposed as a framework within which the solution to these and other problems cited by Oakland may be found. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introspective psychology, pure and applied: Henry Rutgers Marshall on pain and pleasure.

Henry Rutgers Marshal (1852–1927), architect and psychologist, in his aesthetic theory opposed the severing of pain from pleasure in neurological theories in the 1890s. He held that pain and pleasure are poles of the same quale of experience. Marshall's was an introspective psychology, which he used in his architectural criticism and support of the City Beautiful ideal. The practice of introspection educated him, making him a better judge of personal and civic life. Marshall's work represents a road not taken in 20th-century psychology, one centered on the cultivation of the psychologist rather than on the elaboration of objective methods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on International Perspectives in Psychology.

Comments on the articles by K. J. Gergen et al (see record 83-32710) and K. Pawlik and G. d'Ydewalle (see record 83-32705). The author agrees with Gergen et al that presently there is fragmentation in the body of knowledge and signs of alienation among disciplines in the US. In developing countries however, there is not such pronounced compartmentalization, with fewer restrictions and more freedom in practicing any profession. The author agrees with Pawlik and d'Ydewalle that, as in other developing countries, there is a need in the Middle East to discover the national heritage and incorporate it into the local disciplines of psychology and social sciences. The author suggests some additional elements that were missing from Pawlik and d'Ydewalle's analysis, but agrees wholeheartedly with their perspective that although the US is self-sufficient and sophisticated in many ways, it could benefit greatly from the wisdom and richness abundantly stored in other cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)