Diet supplementation with fish oil and sunflower oil to increase conjugated linoleic acid levels in milk fat of partially grazing dairy cows

The objective of this study was to determine the long-term effect on milk conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9, trans-11 CLA) of adding fish oil (FO) and sunflower oil (SFO) to the diets of partially grazing dairy cows. Fourteen Holstein cows were divided into 2 groups (7 cows/treatment) and fed either a control or oil-supplemented diet for 8 wk while partially grazing pasture. Cows in group 1 were fed a grain mix diet (8.0 kg/d, DM basis) containing 400 g of saturated animal fat (control). Cows in the second group were fed the same grain mix diet except the saturated animal fat was replaced with 100 g of FO and 300 g of SFO. Cows were milked twice a day and milk samples were collected weekly throughout the trial. Both groups grazed together on alfalfa-based pasture ad libitum and were fed their treatment diets after the morning and afternoon milking. Milk production (30.0 and 31.2 kg/d), milk fat percentages (3.64 and 3.50), milk fat yield (1.08 and 1.09 kg/d), milk protein percentages (2.97 and 2.88), and milk protein yield (0.99 and 0.91 kg/d) for diets 1 and 2, respectively, were not affected by the treatment diets. The concentrations of cis-9, trans-11 CLA (1.64 vs. 0.84 g/100 g of fatty acids) and vaccenic acid (5.11 vs. 2.20 g/100 g of fatty acids) in milk fat were higher for cows fed the oil-supplemented diet over the 8 wk of oil supplementation. The concentration of cis-9, trans-11 CLA in milk fat reached a maximum (1.0 and 1.64 g/100 g of fatty acids for diets 1 and 2, respectively) in wk 1 for both diets and remained relatively constant thereafter. The concentration of vaccenic acid in milk fat followed the same temporal pattern as cis-9, trans-11 CLA. In conclusion, supplementing the diet of partially grazing cows with FO and SFO increased the milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA content, and that increase remained relatively constant after 1 wk of oil supplementation.     

Fatty acid profiles of milk and rumen digesta from cows fed fish oil,extruded soybeans or their blend

Four fistulated primiparous cows (two Holstein and two Brown Swiss) averaging 102 DIM were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 3-wk periods to determine the effect of feeding fish oil, extruded soybeans, or their combination on fatty acid profiles of milk and rumen digesta. Experimental diets consisted of: 1) control diet; 2) a diet with 2% (DM basis) added fat from menhaden fish oil; 3) a diet with 2% added fat from extruded soybeans; and 4) a diet with 1% added fat from fish oil and 1% fat from extruded soybeans. All diets consisted of 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% concentrate. Milk yields (28.6, 29.7, 29.2, and 28.1 kg/d for control, fish oil, extruded soybeans, and combination diets, respectively) were similar for all fat supplements and control. Milk fat and protein percentages (3.49, 3.08; 3.25, 2.96; 3.47, 3.01; 3.48, 2.99 for diets 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively) were not affected by fat supplements compared with control. Dry matter intake (23.0, 21.6, 22.7, and 21.6 kg/d) was reduced when diets containing fish oil were fed. Concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid [CLA; cis-9, trans-11 CLA, 0.40, 0.88, 0.87, and 0.80 g/100 g fatty acids (FA)] and transvaccenic acid (TVA, 1.02, 2.34, 2.41, and 2.06 g/100 g of FA) were increased in milk fat by all fat supplements, with no differences in milk CLA and TVA observed among fat supplements. As with milk fat, proportions of ruminal CLA (0.09, 0.26, 0.18, and 0.21 g/100 g of FA) and TVA (2.61, 4.56, 4.61, and 4.39 g/100 g of FA) increased with fat supplements. The effects of fat supplements on ruminal TVA and CLA concentrations were also reflected in rumen FA-salts, free fatty acids, and neutral lipids. The higher TVA to CLA ratio in the rumen compared with milk indicated that fat supplements increased milk CLA concentration mainly by increasing ruminal production of TVA, which also implied the significant role that mammary delta-9 desaturase plays in milk CLA concentrations.     

Influence of dietary fish oil on conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids in milk fat from lactating dairy cows

Lactating cows were fed menhaden fish oil to elevate concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk. Twelve multiparous Holstein cows at 48+/-11 DIM were assigned randomly to a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square. Each treatment period was 35 d in length, with data collected d 15 to 35 of each period. On a dry matter (DM) basis, diets contained 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% of the respective concentrate mix. Fish oil was supplemented at 0, 1, 2, and 3% of ration DM. Linear decreases were observed for DM intake (28.8, 28.5, 23.4, and 20.4 kg/d) and milk fat (2.99, 2.79, 2.37, and 2.30%) for 0 to 3% dietary fish oil, respectively. Milk yield (31.7, 34.2, 32.3, and 27.4 kg/d) increased as dietary fish oil increased from 0 to 1% but decreased linearly from 1 to 3% dietary fish oil. Milk protein percentages (3.17, 3.19, 3.21, and 3.17) were similar for all treatments. When the 2% fish oil diet was fed, concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid in milk fat increased to 356% (to 2.2 g/ 100 g of total fatty acids) and 502% (to 6.1 g/100 g), respectively, of amounts when 0% fish oil was fed. There were no additional increases in these fatty acids when cows were fed 3% fish oil. The n-3 fatty acids increased from a trace to over 1 g/100 g of milk fatty acids, when the 3% fish oil diet was fed. Fish oil supplementation to diets of dairy cows increased the conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and n-3 fatty acids in milk.     

Conjugated linoleic acid increases in milk when cows fed fish meal and extruded soybeans for an extended period of time

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of feeding a conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) stimulating diet for an extended period of time on milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA and vaccenic acid (VA) concentrations. Twenty cows (16 Holstein and 4 Brown Swiss) were divided into 2 groups (n = 10 per treatment) for a 10-wk study. Cows in group 1 were fed a traditional corn-soybean-basal diet (control), while those in group 2 were fed a blend of 0.5% fish oil from fish meal and 2% soybean oil from extruded soybeans (FMESB) to achieve higher milk fat cis-9, trans-11 CLA and VA. Diets were formulated to contain 18% CP and were composed (dry matter basis) of 50% concentrate mix, 25% corn silage, and 25% alfalfa hay. Dry matter intake was not affected by diet. Milk production increased in cows fed the FMESB diet. Milk fat and milk protein percentages decreased with the FMESB diet; however, milk fat and protein yields were not affected by treatments. Milk fat cis-9, trans-11 CLA and VA concentration (g/100 of fatty acids) and yield (g/d) were 2.5-fold greater for cows fed the FMESB diet over the 10 wk of fat supplementation. For cows fed the FMESB diet, contents of milk fat cis-9, trans-11 CLA and VA gradually increased from the first week of fat supplementation, reached the highest concentrations in wk 3, then gradually decreased during wk 4 and 5 and then remained relatively constant until wk 10. The concentration of cis-9, trans-11 CLA and VA from the control diet was relatively constant over the 10 wk of fat supplementation. Concentrations of cis-9, trans-11 CLA and VA in milk fat can be increased within a week by feeding a blend of fish meal and extruded soybeans, and that increase remains relatively constant after wk 5 of fat supplementation.     

Effects of feeding fish meal and n-3 fatty acids on milk yield and metabolic responses in early lactating dairy cows

The study was designed to test the effects of feeding fish meal (FM) and specific n-3 fatty acids on milk yield and composition, dry matter intake, plasma concentrations of metabolic hormones and metabolites, and liver triglyceride accumulation in early lactating cows. From 5 to 50 d in milk (DIM), cows were fed diets that were isonitrogenous, isoenergetic, and isolipidic containing none (control), 1.25, 2.5, or 5% menhaden FM or 2.3% Ca salts of fish oil fatty acids (CaFOFA). Milk yield (48.2, 49.8, 48.6, 53.5, and 52.2 ± 1.0 kg/d, respectively) and dry matter intake (22.7, 22.8, 23.0, 23.8, and 24.7 ± 0.5 kg/d, respectively) differed among diets. Average daily plasma glucose concentration (53.4, 55.3, 51.1, 57.6, and 57.3 ± 1.3 mg/dL, respectively) was also affected by diet, and plasma insulin concentration was increased by 5% FM and 2.3% Ca-FOFA. At 25 and 50 DIM, blood was collected before feeding and hourly for 11 h after feeding. Plasma glucose concentrations in cows during the day were similar among diets at 25 DIM, but differed at 50 DIM (54.6, 54.4, 52.4, 60.5, and 58.3 ± 1.4 mg/dL for 0, 1.25, 2.5, and 5% FM or 2.3% CaFOFA, respectively). Plasma insulin was increased in cows fed 5% FM and 2.3% CaFOFA at 25 DIM and was similar among diets at 50 DIM. Dietary treatments had no significant effect on milk composition, energy balance, or on daily plasma concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids, β-hydroxybutyrate, and urea. Plasma aspartate aminotransferase and hepatic triglyceride concentration in cows did not differ among diets at 21 DIM. Results from this experiment demonstrate that dietary supplementation with FM or n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in early lactating dairy cows significantly increased milk yield and DMI with no change in milk composition.     

Effect of supplementation with fish oil or microalgae on fatty acid composition of milk from cows managed in confinement or pasture systems

The objective of this study was to examine the interaction between lipid supplement (LS) and management system (MS) on fatty acid (FA) composition of milk that could affect its healthfulness as a human food. Forty-eight prepartal Holstein cows were blocked by parity and predicted calving date and deployed across pasture (PAS; n = 23) or confinement (CONF; n = 25) systems. Cows within each system were assigned randomly to a control (no marine oil supplement) or to 1 of 2 isolipidic (200 g/d) marine oil supplements: fish oil (FO) or microalgae (MA) for 125 ± 5 d starting 30 d precalving. The experiment was conducted as a split-plot design, with MS being the whole-plot treatment and LS as the subplot treatment. Cows were housed in a tie-stall barn from −30 until 28 ± 10 d in milk (DIM) and were fed total mixed rations with similar formulations. The PAS group was then adapted to pasture and rotationally grazed on a perennial sward until the end of the experiment (95 ± 5 DIM). Milk samples were collected at 60 and 90 DIM for major components and FA analyses. Milk yield (kg/d) was lower in PAS (34.0) compared with CONF (40.1) cows. Milk fat percentage was reduced with MA compared with FO (3.00 vs. 3.40) and the control (3.56) cows. However, milk fat yield (kg/d) was not affected by lipid supplements. Compared with CONF, PAS cows produced milk fat with a lower content of 12:0 (−38%), 14:0 (−28%), and 16:0 (−17%), and more cis-9 18:1 (+32%), 18:3 n-3 (+30%), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; +70%) and trans 18:1 (+34%). Both supplements, regardless of MS, reduced similarly the milk fat content of 16:0 (−12%) and increased CLA (+28%) and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated FA (n-3 LC-PUFA; +150%). Milk fat content of trans 18:1 (trans-6 to trans-16) was increased with FO or MA, although the effect was greater with MA (+81%) than with FO (+42%). The interaction between MS and LS was significant only for trans-11 18:1 (vaccenic acid, VA) and cis-9,trans-11 CLA (rumenic acid). In contrast to CONF, feeding FO or MA to PAS cows did not increase milk fat content of VA and rumenic acid. We concluded that compared with CONF, milk from PAS cows had a more healthful FA composition. Feeding either FO or MA improved n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated FA and reduced levels of 16:0 in milk fat, regardless of MS, but concurrently increased the trans 18:1 isomers other than VA, at the expense of VA, particularly in grazing cows.     

Milk conjugated linoleic acid response to fish oil supplementation of diets differing in fatty acid profiles

The objective of this experiment was to examine the effect of feeding fish oil (FO) along with fat sources that varied in their fatty acid compositions (high stearic, high oleic, high linoleic, or high linolenic acids) to determine which combination would lead to maximum conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9,trans-11 CLA) and transvaccenic acid (TVA) concentrations in milk fat. Twelve Holstein cows (eight multiparous and four primiparous cows) at 73 (+/- 32) DIM were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 4-wk periods. Treatment diets were 1) 1% FO plus 2% fat source high in stearic acid (HS), 2) 1% FO plus 2% fat from high oleic acid sunflower seeds (HO), 3) 1% FO plus 2% fat from high linoleic acid sunflower seeds (HLO), and 4) 1% FO plus 2% fat from flax seeds (high linolenic; HLN). Diets formulated to contain 18% crude protein were composed of 50% (dry basis) concentrate mix, 25% corn silage, 12.5% alfalfa haylage, and 12.5% alfalfa hay. Milk production (35.8, 36.3, 34.9, and 35.0 kg/d for diets 1 to 4) was similar for all diets. Milk fat percentages (3.14, 2.81, 2.66, and 3.08) and yields (1.13, 1.02, 0.93, and 1.08 kg/d) for diets 1 to 4 were lowest for HLO. Milk protein percentages (3.04, 3.03, 3.10, and 3.08) and dry matter intake (DMI) (25.8, 26.0, 26.2, and 26.2 kg/d) for diets 1 to 4 were similar for all diets. Milk cis-9,trans-11 CLA concentrations (0.70, 1.04, 1.70, and 1.06 g/100 g fatty acids) for diet 1 to 4 and yields (7.7, 10.7, 15.8, and 11.3 g/d) for diets 1 to 4 were greatest with HLO and were least with HS. Milk cis-9,trans-11 CLA concentrations and yields were similar for cows fed the HO and the HLN diets. Similar to milk cis-9,trans-11 CLA, milk TVA concentration (1.64, 2.49, 3.74, and 2.41 g/100 g fatty acids) for diets 1 to 4 was greatest with the HLO diet and least with the HS diet. Feeding a high linoleic acid fat source with fish oil most effectively increased concentrations and yields of milk cis-9,trans-11 CLA and TVA.     

Conjugated linoleic acid and other beneficial fatty acids in milk fat from cows fed soybean meal, fish meal, or both

Twelve multiparous Holstein cows at 48 +/- 8 DIM were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 21-d periods to determine the effect of replacing soybean meal with fish meal on feed intake, milk yield, and milk composition. Fish meal substituted for soybean meal on an isonitrogenous basis at 0, 25, 50, and 100% of supplemental protein. Total mixed diets were (DM basis) 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% concentrate mix. Intake of DM (27.9, 27.8, 26.1, and 25.8 kg/d for diets 1 to 4, respectively) was similar for all diets. Milk yield (37.5, 37.8, 37.2, and 37.7 kg/d) was not affected by diets. Milk protein percentages (3.23, 3.24, 3.31, and 3.35) increased with 100% fish meal supplementation and tended to be higher with 50% fish meal supplementation compared with 100% soybean meal diet. Milk fat percentages (3.18, 2.99, 3.04, and 2.87) and yield were lower with the 100% fish meal than with the 100% soybean meal diet. Concentration of n-3 fatty acids in milk fat (0.54, 0.56, 0.63, and 0.72 g/100 g fatty acids) increased as the proportion of fish meal in the diet increased. Concentrations of c9,t11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 0.39, 0.44, 0.46, and 0.72 g/100 g fatty acids) and transvaccenic acid (TVA; 1.09, 1.19, 1.28, and 1.54 g/100 g of fatty acids) were higher with the 100% fish meal diet than with the 100% soybean meal diet. A total replacement of soybean meal with fish meal in the diet of lactating cows increased milk protein percentages and the beneficial fatty acids (CLA, TVA, and n-3 FA) in milk fat.     

Effects of varying doses of supplemental conjugated linoleic acid on production and energetic variables during the transition period

Supplementing a high dose of dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) inhibits milk fat synthesis in dairy cows immediately postpartum. During negative net energy balance (EBAL), it appears that moderate CLA-induced milk fat depression causes a positive response in milk yield; however, as milk fat depression becomes more severe, the milk yield response diminishes. Multiparous Holstein cows (n = 31) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments beginning 9 ± 6 d before expected calving and ceased at 40 d in milk (DIM): 1) 578 g/d of a rumen-inert (RI) palm fatty acid distillate (control), 2) 600 g/d of RI-CLA for the entire trial period (CLA-1), and 3) 600 g/d of RI-CLA until 10 DIM followed by 200 g/d for the remainder of the trial (CLA-2). Each dose provided equal amounts of fatty acids by replacing and balancing each treatment with a RI palm fatty acid distillate. Doses provided a total of 522 g of fatty acids/d and 0, 174, or 58 (depending upon DIM) g of CLA (mixed isomers)/d. To improve palatability, doses were mixed with 600 g/d of dried molasses; one-half of the supplement was fed at 0800 h, and the remainder at 1900 h. Individual milk yield, dry matter intake, and body weight were recorded daily and milk composition determined every other day. There was no overall CLA effect on either the content or yield of milk protein or lactose. Both CLA treatments decreased overall milk fat content (26.0 and 18.3%) and yield (22.5 and 17.3%) with CLA-induced milk fat depression becoming significant by d 8. The CLA-induced milk fat depression increased in magnitude with progressing DIM until reaching a plateau on d 18 for CLA-1 (43%) and on d 14 for CLA-2 (33%), although neither milk fat trans-10, cis-12 CLA content (1.8 mg/g) nor its transfer efficiency (6.3%) changed over time. Treatments had no effect on overall dry matter intake or milk yield, but there was a treatment × time interaction for milk production, as cows fed either CLA treatment had increased milk yield after the second week of lactation. Cows fed either CLA treatment had a significant improvement in overall EBAL (−5.1 vs.-1.8 Mcal/d), a decrease in nonesterified fatty acid levels (12%), and an increase in glucose levels (11%). A dietary supplement containing trans-10, cis-12 CLA markedly improves EBAL and bioenergetic variables and increases milk yield in the total mixed ration-fed transitioning dairy cow.     

Feeding fish meal and extruded soybeans enhances the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content of milk

Twelve multiparous Holstein cows averaging 65 (33 to 122) DIM were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square for 4-wk periods to determine whether feeding fish oil as fish meal would stimulate increased amounts of milk conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9, trans-11 C18:2; CLA) and transvaccenic acid (trans-11 C18:1; TVA) when the cows were fed extruded soybeans to supply additional linoleic acid. Treatment diets were 1) control; 2) 0.5% fish oil from fish meal; 3) 2.5% soybean oil from extruded soybeans; and 4) 0.5% fish oil from fish meal and 2% soybean oil from extruded soybeans. Diets were formulated to contain 18% crude protein and were composed (dry basis) of 50% concentrate mix, 25% corn silage, and 25% alfalfa hay. Intake of DM was not affected by diet. Milk production was increased by diets 2, 3, and 4 compared with diet 1 (control). Milk fat and milk protein percentages decreased with diets 3 and 4. Milk fat yield was not affected by treatments, but yield of milk protein was increased with supplemental fish meal and extruded soybeans or their blend. When diets 2, 3, or 4 were fed, concentrations of cis-9, trans-11 CLA in milk fat increased by 0.4-, 1.4-, and 3.2-fold, and TVA concentrations in milk fat increased by 0.4-, 1.8-, and 3.5-fold compared with the control milk fat. Increases in TVA and cis-9, trans-11 CLA were 91 to 109% greater when a blend of fish meal and extruded soybeans was fed than the additive effect of fish meal and extruded soybeans. This suggested that fish oil increased the production of CLA and TVA from other dietary sources of linoleic acid such as extruded soybeans.     

Fish oil and extruded soybeans fed in combination increase conjugated linoleic acids in milk of dairy cows more than when fed separately

Eight multiparous Holstein and four multiparous Brown Swiss (78 +/- 43 DIM) cows were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 28-d periods to evaluate if feeding fish oil with a source of linoleic acid (extruded soybeans) would stimulate additional amounts of conjugated linoleic acid in milk. Four treatments consisted of a control diet with a 50:50 ratio of forage to concentrate (DM basis), a control diet with 2% added fat from either menhaden fish oil or extruded soybeans, or a combination of fish oil and extruded soybeans each adding 1% fat. DM intake (24.3, 21.6, 24.5, and 22.5 kg/d, for control, fish oil, extruded soybeans, and combination diets, respectively), milk production (32.1, 29.1,34.6, and 31.1 kg/d), and milk fat content (3.51, 2.79, 3.27, and 3.14%) were lower for cows that consumed either fish oil-containing diet, especially the 2% fish oil diet. The proportion of n-3 fatty acids in milk fat increased similarly among all three fat-supplemented diets. Concentrations of transvaccenic acid (1.00, 4.16, 2.17, and 3.51 g/100 g of fatty acids) and cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (0.60, 2.03, 1.16, and 1.82 g/100 g of fatty acids) in milk fat increased more with fish oil than with extruded soybeans. When fed the combination diet, these fatty acids were approximately 50% higher than expected for Holsteins, whereas concentrations were similar for Brown Swiss compared with feeding each fat source separately. These data indicated that fish oil modifies ruminal or systemic functions, stimulating increased conversion of linoleic acid into transvaccenic and conjugated linoleic acids.     

The value of different fat supplements as sources of digestible energy for lactating dairy cows

The effects of fat supplements that differed in fatty acid composition (chain length and degree of saturation) and chemical form (free fatty acids, Ca salts of fatty acids, and triacylglyceride) on digestible energy (DE) concentration of the diet and DE intake by lactating cows were measured. Holstein cows were fed a control diet [2.9% of dry matter (DM) as long-chain fatty acids] or 1 of 3 diets with 3% added fatty acids (that mainly replaced starch). The 3 fat supplements were (1) mostly saturated (C18:0) free fatty acids (SFA), (2) Ca-salts of fatty acids (CaFA), and (3) triacylglyceride high in C16:0 fatty acids (TAG). Cows fed CaFA (22.8 kg/d) consumed less DM than cows fed the control (23.6 kg/d) and TAG (23.8 kg/d) diets but similar to cows fed SFA (23.2 kg/d). Cows fed fat produced more fat-corrected milk than cows fed the control diet (38.2 vs. 41.1 kg/d), mostly because of increased milk fat percentage. No differences in yields of milk or milk components were observed among the fat-supplemented diets. Digestibility of DM, energy, carbohydrate fractions, and protein did not differ between diets. Digestibility of long-chain fatty acids was greatest for the CaFA diet (76.3%), intermediate for the control and SFA diets (70.3%), and least for the TAG diet (63.3%). Fat-supplemented diets had more DE (2.93 Mcal/kg) than the control diet (2.83 Mcal/kg), and DE intake by cows fed supplemented diets was 1.6 Mcal/d greater than by cows fed the control, but no differences were observed among the supplements. Because the inclusion rate of supplemental fats is typically low, large differences in fatty acid digestibility may not translate into altered DE intake because of small differences in DM intake or digestibility of other nutrients.     

Effect of linoleic acid and dietary vitamin E supplementation on sustained conjugated linoleic acid production in milk fat from dairy cows

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; cis-9,trans-11 18:2), a bioactive fatty acid (FA) found in milk and dairy products, has potential human health benefits due to its anticarcinogenic and antiatherogenic properties. Conjugated linoleic acid concentrations in milk fat can be markedly increased by dietary manipulation; however, high levels of CLA are difficult to sustain as rumen biohydrogenation shifts and milk fat depression (MFD) is often induced. Our objective was to feed a typical Northeastern corn-based diet and investigate whether vitamin E and soybean oil supplementation would sustain an enhanced milk fat CLA content while avoiding MFD. Holstein cows (n = 48) were assigned to a completely randomized block design with repeated measures for 28 d and received 1 of 4 dietary treatments: (1) control (CON), (2) 10,000 IU of vitamin E/d (VE), (3) 2.5% soybean oil (SO), and (4) 2.5% soybean oil plus 10,000 IU of vitamin E/d (SO-VE). A 2-wk pretreatment control diet served as the covariate. Milk fat percentage was reduced by both high-oil diets (3.53, 3.56, 2.94, and 2.92% for CON, VE, SO, and SO-VE), whereas milk yield increased significantly for the SO-VE diet only, thus partially mitigating MFD by oil feeding. Milk protein percentage was higher for cows fed the SO diet (3.04, 3.05, 3.28, and 3.03% for CON, VE, SO, and SO-VE), implying that nutrient partitioning or ruminal supply of microbial protein was altered in response to the reduction in milk fat. Milk fat concentration of CLA more than doubled in cows fed the diets supplemented with soybean oil, with concurrent increases in trans-10 18:1 and trans-11 18:1 FA. Moreover, milk fat from cows fed the 2 soybean oil diets had 39.1% less de novo synthesized FA and 33.8% more long-chain preformed FA, and vitamin E had no effect on milk fat composition. Overall, dietary supplements of soybean oil caused a reduction in milk fat percentage and a shift in FA composition characteristic of MFD. Supplementing diets with vitamin E did not overcome the oil-induced reduction in milk fat percentage or changes in FA profile, but partially mitigated the reduction in fat yield by increasing milk yield.     

Conjugated linoleic acid increases in milk from cows fed condensed corn distillers solubles and fish oil

Twelve lactating Holstein cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental diets in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with 4-wk periods to ascertain the lactational response to feeding fish oil (FO), condensed corn distillers solubles (CDS) as a source of extra linoleic acid, or both. Diets contained either no FO or 0.5% FO and either no CDS or 10% CDS in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Diets were fed as total mixed rations for ad libitum consumption. The forage to concentrate ratio was 55:45 on a dry matter basis for all diets and the diets contained 16.2% crude protein. The ether extract concentrations were 2.86, 3.22, 4.77, and 5.02% for control, FO, CDS, and FOCDS diets, respectively. Inclusion of FO or CDS or both had no effect on dry matter intake, feed efficiency, body weight, and body condition scores compared with diets without FO and CDS, respectively. Yields of milk (33.3 kg/d), energy-corrected milk, protein, lactose, and milk urea N were similar for all diets. Feeding FO and CDS decreased milk fat percentages (3.85, 3.39, 3.33, and 3.12%) and yields compared with diets without FO and CDS. Proportions of trans-11 C18:1 (vaccenic acid), cis-9 trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA; 0.52, 0.90, 1.11, and 1.52 g/100 g of fatty acids), and trans-10 cis-12 CLA (0.07, 0.14, 0.13, and 0.16 g/100 g of fatty acids) in milk fat were increased by FO and CDS. No interactions were observed between FO and CDS on cis-9 trans-11 CLA although vaccenic acid tended to be higher with the interaction. The addition of CDS to diets increased trans-10 C18:1. Greater ratios of vaccenic acid to cis-9 trans-11 CLA in plasma than in milk fat indicate tissue synthesis of cis-9 trans-11 CLA in the mammary gland from vaccenic acid in cows fed FO or CDS. Feeding fish oil at 0.5% of diet dry matter with a C18:2 n-6 rich source such as CDS increased the milk CLA content but decreased milk fat percentages.     

Milk fatty acid composition of grazing dairy cows when supplemented with linseed oil

The effects of varying amounts of linseed oil (LSO) in grazing dairy cows’ diet on milk conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9, trans-11 CLA) were investigated in this study. Twelve Holstein cows in midlactation (150 ± 19 DIM) were placed on alfalfa-based pasture and assigned to 4 treatments using a 4 × 4 Latin square design with 3-wk periods. Treatments were: 1) control grain supplement; 2) control grain supplement containing 170 g of LSO (LSO1); 3) control grain supplement containing 340 g of LSO (LSO2); and 4) control grain supplement containing 510 g of LSO (LSO3). Grain supplements were offered at 7 kg/d. Additional 100 g/d of algae, divided evenly between the 2 feeding times, were added to every treatment diet. Milk samples were collected during the last 3 d of each period and analyzed for chemical and fatty acid composition. Treatments had no effect on milk production (18.9, 18.5, 19.6, and 19.1 kg/d for treatments 1 to 4, respectively). Linseed oil supplementation caused a quadratic increase in milk fat (3.23, 3.44, 3.35, and 3.27% for treatments 1 to 4, respectively) and protein (3.03, 3.19, 3.12, and 3.08%) contents. Concentrations (g/100 g of fatty acids) of milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA (1.12, 1.18, 1.39, and 1.65 for treatments 1 to 4, respectively) and VA (3.39, 3.62, 4.25, and 4.89) linearly increased with LSO supplementations. Results from this trial suggest that the increase in milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA was proportional to the amounts of LSO fed. In conclusion, adding LSO to grazing dairy cow diets can improve the nutritional value of milk without compromising milk composition or cow performance.     

Butter composition and texture from cows with different milk fatty acid compositions fed fish oil or roasted soybeans

Changing the milk fatty acid composition can improve the nutritional and physical properties of dairy products and their acceptability to consumers. A more healthful milk fatty acid composition can be achieved by altering the cow's diet, for example, by feeding supplemental fish oil (FO) or roasted soybeans (RSB), or by selecting cows with a more unsaturated milk fatty acid composition. We examined whether feeding supplemental FO or RSB to cows that had a more unsaturated milk fatty acid composition acted additively to produce butter with improved fatty acid composition and texture. Using a 3 × 3 Latin square design with 2 replications, we fed diets to multiparous Holstein cows (60 to 200 DIM) chosen for producing either more or less unsaturated milk fatty acid composition (n = 6 for each group) for three 3-wk periods. The control diet contained 3.7% crude fat and the 2 experimental diets contained, on a dry matter basis, 0.8% of additional lipids in the form of 0.9% of FO or 5% of RSB. The milk, collected in the third week of feeding, was used to make butter, which was analyzed for its fatty acid composition and physical properties. Dry matter intake, milk yield, and milk composition were not significantly affected by cow diet or by cow selection. Cows that produced a more unsaturated and healthful milk fat prior to the feeding study, according to a “health-promoting index” [HPI = (sum of % of unsaturated fatty acids)/ (%12:0 + 4 × %14:0 + %16:0)], maintained a higher HPI in their butter during the feeding study than did cows with a low HPI. Milk from cows fed supplemental FO or RSB yielded more unsaturated butters with a higher HPI. This butter also was softer when the cows were fed RSB. Feeding RSB to cows chosen for their high milk HPI yielded the most unsaturated butter with the highest HPI and softest texture. Thus, selecting cows with a more health-promoting milk fatty acid composition and feeding supplemental RSB can be used in combination to produce butter that has a consumer-friendly texture and a healthful fatty acid profile.     

Effectiveness of oils rich in linoleic and linolenic acids to enhance conjugated linoleic acid in milk from dairy cows

Forty Holstein dairy cows were used to determine the effectiveness of linoleic or linolenic-rich oils to enhance C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and C_18:1trans-11 (vaccenic acid; VA) in milk. The experimental design was a complete randomized design for 9 wk with measurements made during the last 6 wk. Cows were fed a basal diet containing 59% forage (control) or a basal diet supplemented with either 4% soybean oil (SO), 4% flaxseed oil (FO), or 2% soybean oil plus 2% flaxseed oil (SFO) on a dry matter basis. Total fatty acids in the diet were 3.27, 7.47, 7.61, and 7.50 g/100 g in control, SO, FO, and SFO diets, respectively. Feed intake, energy-corrected milk (ECM) yield, and ECM produced/kg of feed intake were similar among treatments. The proportions of VA were increased by 318, 105, and 206% in milk fat from cows in the SO, FO, and SFO groups compared with cows in the control group. Similar increases in C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 CLA were 273, 150, and 183% in SO, FO, and SFO treatments, respectively. Under similar feeding conditions, oils rich in linoleic acid (soybean oil) were more effective in enhancing VA and C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 CLA in milk fat than oils containing linolenic acid (flaxseed oil) in dairy cows fed high-forage diets (59% forage). The effects of mixing linoleic and linolenic acids (50:50) on enhancing VA and C_18:2cis-9, trans-11 CLA were additive, but not greater than when fed separately. Increasing the proportion of healthy fatty acids (VA and CLA) by feeding soybean or flaxseed oil would result in milk with higher nutritive and therapeutic value.     

Milk conjugated linoleic acid response to fish oil and sunflower oil supplementation to dairy cows managed under two feeding systems

Earlier research showed that conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk fat is highest when cows’ diets are supplemented with a blend of fish oil (FO) and linoleic acid-rich oils. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of FO and sunflower oil (SFO) supplementation on milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA when dairy cows managed on pasture or in confinement. Fourteen Holstein cows were assigned into 2 treatment groups: cows grazed on alfalfa-grass pasture (PAS) or were fed corn silage-alfalfa hay mix ad libitum (LOT). Both groups were supplemented with a 8.2 kg/d grain supplement containing 640 g of FO and SFO (1:3 wt/wt). Grain supplement was fed in 2 equal portions after each milking, for a period of 3 wk. Milk samples were collected during the last 3 d of the experimental period. Milk yield was greater with the LOT diet (23.1 kg/d) compared with the PAS diet (19.4 kg/d). Milk fat percentages (2.51 and 2.95 for the LOT and PAS, respectively) and yields (0.57 and 0.51 kg/d) were similar for the 2 diets. Milk protein percentages were not affected by diets (3.34 and 3.35 for the LOT and PAS diets, respectively), but protein yields were lower for the PAS diet (0.61 kg/d) compared with the LOT diet (0.75 kg/d). Treatment diets had no effect on milk trans C18:1 concentrations [10.64 and 9.82 g/100 g of total fatty acids (FA) for the LOT and PAS, respectively] or yields (60.65 and 64.01 g/d), but did affect isomers distributions. Concentration (g/100 g of total FA) of vaccenic acid was lower with the LOT diet (2.15) compared with the PAS diet (4.52), whereas concentration of trans-10 C18:1 was greater with the LOT diet (4.99) compared with the PAS diet (1.69). Milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentration was greater with the PAS diet (1.52) compared with the LOT diet (0.84). In conclusion, the increase in milk cis-9, trans-11 CLA content was greater when pasture-based diets were supplemented with FO and SFO. The lower cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentration in milk from the confinement-fed cows resulted from trans-10 C18:1 replacing vaccenic acid as the predominant trans C18:1 isomer.     

Composition and properties of milk and butter from cows fed fish oil

A control diet and a fish oil diet were fed to 12 multiparous Holstein cows to determine how the incorporation of Menhaden fish oil in the diet would influence the fatty acid composition, especially the conjugated linoleic acid and transvaccenic acid, contents of milk and butter. The control diet consisted of a 50:50 ratio of forage to concentrate, and the fish oil diet consisted of the control diet with 2% (on a dry matter basis) added fish oil. Milk from cows fed the control diet contained higher average concentrations of milk fat (3.37%) compared with milk from cows fed the fish oil diet (2.29%). Milk from cows fed fish oil contained higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and total unsaturated fatty acids (0.68 and 2.51; 1.42 and 6.28; and 30.47 and 41.71 g/100 g of fat, respectively). Butter made from the fish oil diet milk also had higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and unsaturated fatty acids. Penetrometer readings indicated fish oil diet butters were softer at 4 and 20 degrees C than the control diet butters. Acid degree values were similar in the fish oil butters compared with the control butters. No significant difference was found in the flavor characteristics of milk and butter from cows fed the control and fish oil diets. Production of milk and butter with increased amounts of conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic acid, and other beneficial fatty acids may have a desirable impact on the health of consumers and lead to increased sales.     

Changes in milk fat in response to dietary supplementation with calcium salts of trans-18:1 or conjugated linoleic fatty acids in lactating dairy cows

Milk fat was investigated in lactating dairy cows fed diets supplemented with Ca salts of trans fatty acids (Ca-tFA) or Ca salts of conjugated linoleic acids (Ca-CLA). Forty-five Holstein cows (115 days in milk) were fed a control diet (51% forage; dry matter basis) supplemented with 400 g of EnerG II (Ca salts of palm oil fatty acids) for 2 wk; subsequently, 5 groups of 9 cows each were assigned for 4 wk to the control diet or diets containing 100 g of Ca-CLA or 100, 200, or 400 g of Ca-tFA in a randomized block design. Treatments had no effect on dry matter intake, milk production, protein, lactose, or somatic cell count. Milk fat percentage was reduced from 3.39% in controls to 3.30, 3.04, and 2.98%, respectively, by the Ca-tFA diets and to 2.54% by the Ca-CLA diet. Milk fat yield (1.24 kg/d in controls) was decreased by 60, 130, and 190 g/d with increasing dose of Ca-tFA and by 290 g/d with the Ca-CLA supplement. Consistent with increased endogenous synthesis of cis-9-containing CLA from precursors provided by the Ca-tFA diets, total CLA were similar in milk of cows fed Ca-CLA or Ca-tFA. Compared with controls, the Ca-CLA diet increased trans-10, cis-12-18:2 yield in milk, without altering levels of trans-18:1 isomers. In contrast, yields of most trans-18:1 isomers were elevated in milk of cows fed Ca-tFA diets, whereas yields of trans-10, cis-12-18:2 remained similar to control values. We conclude that milk fat depression can occur without an increase in trans-10, cis-12-18:2 in milk and that other components, perhaps the trans-10-18:1 isomer, may be involved.