A comparative analysis of the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea,China, and Japan

The purpose of this study was to analyze quantitatively the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea, China, and Japan. The study focused on the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki costume colors based on a selection of 1135 color samples. The collected source data were selected by extracting digital color data by using the Eyedropper Tool of Photoshop 7.0. The RGB color data were transformed to H V/C and the attributes of hue and tone were analyzed. Color images were analyzed with the color image scales of IRI Color Design Institute and Shigenobu Kobayashi to increase the validity of the evaluated images. As a result, the “five element colors (red, yellow, purple–blue (PB), white, and black)” from the theory of “Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing” were used in the common stage costume colors of the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki. Red, a preferred Asian color, was used most frequently in the costumes of these three traditional plays. A comparison of the traditional stage costume colors in the three northeast Asian countries revealed a difference in tones rather than in hues. First, the Korean Masque frequently used white in accordance with the tradition of white‐clad people and the cultural view of colors in which natural colors were preferred. Additionally, in the Masque, Koreans used colors based on the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing with high‐chroma tones. On the other hand, the Beijing Opera exhibited the gorgeous and strong color images of China, by adopting high‐chroma colors in the Five Element Color: R, Y, PB, white, and black. Last, in the Kabuki costumes, a variety of white, black, dull, light, dark, strong, vivid, deep, bright, and grayish tones played an important role in showing various color images. The costume color images of the traditional plays of the three countries revealed that all shared the use of dynamic, springy/casual, and gorgeous images in the strong contrast of five element colors. Regarding the differences, the Korean Masque exhibited natural images in favor of natural colors, whereas the Kabuki displayed modern, decent/formal images by using dull, dark, and grayish colors. The study results suggested that the three countries commonly used five element colors from the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing, but that their color images differed in terms of the tones used and the techniques for color combination. These results reflect that colors in the traditional costumes of the three countries are affected by their cultural codes, thereby representing the characteristics ofcertain peoples and cultural circles. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2011     

A comparative study on correlation between personal background and interior color preference

In this research, we identify and investigate some of the factors influencing residential color preference. We have taken social environment as a primary focus and the influence of a person's residential, regional, educational, and personal background have been examined. A questionnaire, two drawings (one of a bedroom and another of the exterior of a few houses) and 24 color pencils were prepared. In total, 319 data were gathered from Japanese students living in Japan, Foreign students living in Japan, and Iranian students living in Iran, with 301 applicable data. One of the questions was the respondent's favorite color. The results showed that more than 96.7% have used their favorite colors in the drawings. Blue hues were used most by people living in coastal areas (P < 0.05). Education had a strong correlation with number of color varieties (P < 0.01). Moreover, students who had parents with art backgrounds had used more colors in the drawings rather than the ones with parents with no art background (P < 0.05). Foreigners and Iranians have used more color varieties compared to Japanese (P < 0.05). Ultimately, it was observed that among the case studies (regional, residential, and educational), education had a strong positive correlation with number of color varieties (P < 0.01). © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 416–424, 2015     

Adequateness of a newly modified opponent‐colors theory

Two features of a newly modified opponent‐colors theory are examined for correctness: (1) The perceived chroma of pure color is different for different hues. This was confirmed by using Ikeda's UCS (Uniform Color Scales) formula and also by the maximum Munsell Chroma Values for different hues. (2) Chromatic colors with the same values of whiteness, blackness, grayness, and perceived chroma have the same perceived lightness and chromatic tone regardless of hue. This was confirmed by a theoretical analysis and observations of the color samples in the Practical Color Co‐ordinate System (PCCS) developed in Japan. Chromatic tone, a complex concept of object colors, is clarified. The structure of the newly modified theory and its corresponding color space were confirmed by observation of object colors. Furthermore, it was found effective for developing a color‐order system and its corresponding standard color charts to the modified theory. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 298–307, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10164     

Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian regions,with special emphasis on the preference for white

The results of three surveys are presented. The first survey was carried out in four large cities in Japan, and the findings were analyzed by factor analysis and cluster analysis. The second survey was carried out in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the two countries, focusing on the preference for white. The last survey compared color preference in Taipei and Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. In these successive studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian cities, the subjects were mainly asked to choose from a color chart the three colors they liked most and the three they liked least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The results of Survey 1 showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Also factor analysis and cluster analysis indicated some relation between color preference and the subjects' life styles. Dual scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference tendencies and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along with preferences for some other colors. These results thus demonstrated a common strong preference for white in three neighboring Asian areas. The reasons given for the choices suggested that besides the factors of age and sex, associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects may be an important factor influencing color preference. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A comparative study of food habits and body shape perception of university students in Japan and Korea

Background  

Abnormal body weight, dietary concerns, and unhealthy weight loss behaviors are increasingly being observed in young females in Japan. Our previous research has shown that the irregular lifestyles of female Japanese and Chinese students are significantly related to their desire to be thinner. In the present study, we compare the food habits and body shape preferences of female university students in South Korea and Japan to explore body shape perceptions in those populations.     

Color characteristics of costumes for Korean folk festivals and color consciousness of Koreans

The purpose of this study was to identify the color characteristics of Korean culture, the color consciousness of Korean people based on their arche‐pattern sentiment, and to analyze the colors of the costumes of Korean folk festivals, which clearly suggest the archetype of Korean tradition. The range of this study is focused on Korea's important intangible cultural assets in which the colors used in folk festivals were fully expressed, and 20 folk games and plays were selected from among different festival events. Hundred and fifteen pictures from these 20 folk games/plays were used to extract the costume colors and conduct color analyses. Among 647 colors extracted in total, this article used 199 colors after excluding overlapping colors. The results show that Korean folk festivals have served as the medium of nondifferentiation that goes beyond the differentiated order of reality. Costumes for these Korean folk festivals, such as folk games and folk plays, have a sacred meaning as ritualistic robes. Five element colors in these costumes for the Korean folk festival are used as a means of circulatory thinking and as a symbol of Chaos—the very origin of undifferentiated thinking—beyond one's daily lives. It was found that these highly chromatic five element colors have always been used, wherever this undifferentiated thinking was strongly expressed. Delivering visually strong impacts, these five element colors symbolize the concept of the Arche‐pattern theory, being related to infinite freedom without any restrictions. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010     

Apparel color preferences for different regions in China: The connection to personal values

This article examines the associations between personal values and apparel color preferences, and deduces the apparel color preferences of consumers based on the mainstream values in different regions in China. Clustering analysis was used to classify the values, and a Chi‐square test was used to verify whether the different values had a significant effect on the consumer's color preferences. Finally, a corresponding analysis was conducted to clarify the associations between personal values and apparel color preferences. The associations reported in the study suggest the apparel color preferences in the 4 major urban agglomerations in China. It was found that consumers in the Pearl River Delta region were mainly ideal‐oriented and authority value types and preferred darker apparel colors than other city groups in China; consumers in the Yangtze River Delta region were mainly responsibility‐oriented and justice value types and preferred warmer and more contrasting colors; and consumers in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei and Chengdu–Chongqing regions were mainly benevolence‐oriented value types, preferring more highly saturated and brighter colors than the other regions. Self‐oriented consumers, who preferred cool and dark apparel colors were found to have no clear correspondence to any region. These results are important for fashion designers and fashion brands in China; it can assist the Chinese fashion industry in regionalizing their product offerings and in providing a theoretical reference for the development of the garment industry.     

Theoretical analysis of subtractive color mixture characteristics

Understanding the characteristics of the stimulus values of colors obtained by subtractive color mixture is not easy, compared with those obtained by additive color mixture, since the relationship between superimposed absorption media and the stimulus values is not simple. In this article, using the assumption of the Lambert‐Beer model for subtractive color mixture, we prove several theorems regarding the stimulus values of colors obtained by subtractive color mixture. Although these theorems are proved theoretically, numerical illustrations are also shown to confirm the theorems. The results of this paper will contribute to a systematization of subtractive color mixture. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 175–181, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10143     

A novel method for fabric color transfer

Fabric color design is a complex process in textiles and clothing industry. A new method for fabric color selection and transferring is proposed in this study. An automatic way to select the colors from the natural images is developed for fabric color design. Based on these colors, a fabric image is then used for color transferring. The fabric image is processed by a bias field estimation operation, and the membership function of the color deviations of the image has been obtained. According to the selected colors and the color membership function, the fabric image colors can be changed and transferred to a new image that preserves the similar texture appearance but with significantly different color effects. The experimental results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed method. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 304–310, 2015     

Perceived density,a further attribute of color,revealed by the colors favored in Japan

Colors can be characterized by three main attributes: hue, value, and saturation. But colors also exhibit other phenomenological qualities. In this study, we identify one such secondary attribute of color: perceived density. We discuss the prevalence of dense colors in Japan starting from the “48 Teas and 100 Mice” colors of the Edo period, and develop the concept of perceived density through this aspect of Japanese color preference. When vivid colors were forbidden to commoners during the Edo period, subtle variations of brownish and grayish colors were created. These colors with base tones were not salient, yet they looked dense. Muted colors with paradoxical richness are still common in Japan today. Japanese commodity design often uses muddy colors with white or gray undertones, and deep colors with black undertones. Together they form distinct groupings of relatively dense color. The perceived density of color corresponds to how dense and filled, or thin and airy a color appears. Colors of higher perceived density appear to be more packed and to have mass. Perceived density of color is unusual in that it does not have a monotonic relationship with one of the primary perceptual attributes. High apparent density is observed in a central region of an equi‐hue plane where value or saturation are at intermediate values. We consider two possible explanations of how high values of density can coincide with middling values of value and saturation: characteristics of the spectral reflectance curves, or the complexity of the neural signals that underlie the emergent property.     

Analysis of color symbology from the perspective of cultural semiotics focused on Korean costume colors according to the cultural changes

The purpose of this study was to analyze the symbolization of colors as cultural codes, based on costume colors. In order to study the significance of colors in cultural changes, we carried out a quantitative analysis and interpreted it from the perspective of cultural semiotics. The range of this study was focused on Korean costume colors, over diverse diachronic stages of Korean culture. For this study 1535 color samples were collected, measured with a spectrophotometer, and analyzed quantitatively according their diachronic stages of origin. As a result, red, blue, and yellow were found to be the most frequently used colors during the Chosun Dynasty, a period based on Confucianism. These colors acted as cultural codes with cultural significance. During the Modern times pink, light blue, and black increased in frequency and represented the reception of western culture, the changing sex role of women in society, and utilitarianism. In these days, neutral colors and grayish tones of all colors are the most significant colors of high frequency. The use of such colors is closely related to industrialization, mechanization, functionalism, and the changes of women's sex roles in the societies. They are used as cultural codes, especially to emphasize a rational and masculine image rather than a feminine image. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 32, 71–79, 2007; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20290     

Changes in hue and saturation of chromatic lights presented in the peripheral visual field

The perception of ten different colors on a CRT display presented across the horizontal meridian of the visual field were measured to determine the range of relevant test stimuli for color zone map measurement. Hue and saturation judgments were used based on the opponent‐colors theory. The changes of the unique hue components for eccentric displays of red, yellow, green, and blue fall within the distribution range of previous results obtained using monochromatic lights. Chromatic displays of nearly unique hues with high saturation would be significant as test colors for measurement for a color zone map. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 413–424, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10194     

Cross preferences for colors and shapes

Preferences for colors and geometric shapes vary considerably across individuals. Studies have demonstrated these variations in preference separately for colors and shapes, but the relationships between preference variations for colors and shapes are not yet known. By measuring individual preferences for basic colors and shapes, we found that color preferences and shape preferences were partly, but systematically, correlated. People who preferred some simple shapes (e.g., cone, pyramid) tended to prefer some light or warm colors (e.g., yellow, orange). In contrast, people who preferred some complex shapes (e.g., scrambled truncated‐pyramid, scrambled pyramid) tended to prefer some dark or cold colors (e.g., blue, blue‐green). That is, people who like “simple” or “complex” visual features might tend to like “light or warm” or “dark or cold” visual features. These results indicate that individual preferences for colors and shapes might not be independent, but could be correlated and intertwined to some extent. We suggest that the semantic information associated with colors and shapes underlies the cross preferences. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 188–195, 2016     

Metamers for assessing the quality of CIE D50 simulators

Simulators of CIE Illuminants D65 and D75 are widely used for visually judging colors, but D50 simulators are used in photography and color printing. The CIE method of assessing the quality of daylight simulators provides sets of virtual metamers for assessing D55, D65, and D75 simulators, but does not provide them for D50. Data specifying sets of metamers for assessing the quality of D50 simulators are presented. They are based in part on data in a Japanese standard and in part on newly derived data. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Crosscultural comparison of color terms and preference of persimmon‐dyed fabric,Galchon

This crosscultural study was aimed at correlating color emotions and preference for persimmon‐dyed cotton fabrics known as Galchon. Cotton fabrics were dyed with persimmon powder, in a range of shades, and in some cases were also iron mordanted. Textile and fashion students from Jeju National University in Korea and North Carolina State University (NCSU) in USA participated in the visual assessment of dyed samples and were asked to scale their visual experience and state their emotion and preference for the terms “Bright,” “Heavy,” “Soft,” “Strong,” “Deep,” and “Like.” Korean observers used “Strong” for iron‐mordanted Galchon, and American observers did not associate “Bright” or “Deep” with weakly dyed fabrics. In addition to the subjective terms described, the color preference for samples was quantified using their CIE colorimetric attributes. For Korean observers, the results indicate a correlation between L^* and “Bright,” whereas for Americans a stronger correlation was obtained against “Soft.” American observers' results also show a relationship between C^* and the term “Warm,” especially for dyeings of Galchon at high concentrations. It was also found that iron mordanting affected responses from both groups but only influenced the color preference of Korean observers. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 592–604, 2015     

Long‐term memory colors of Korean and Hungarian observers

Long‐term memory colors have been discussed extensively in the literature but previous articles focused on reflecting color samples. In this work, we studied six important long‐term memory colors, skin (both Caucasian and Oriental), green grass, blue sky, deciduous foliage, orange, and banana, in the viewing situation of a self‐luminous color monitor, for two different observer groups, Koreans and Hungarians. We quantified the long‐term memory colors of both observer groups in terms of CIE L*,a*,b* values, in a given viewing situation, and estimated interobserver variability. We used a comprehensive psychophysical experimental methodology including both the method of constant stimuli and the method of adjustment. In many cases, we found significant differences (t tests, P < 0.05) between the Korean and the Hungarian long‐term memory colors. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 31, 176–183, 2006; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20192     

Color and women hitchhikers' attractiveness: Gentlemen drivers prefer red

Research has shown that with some nonhuman primates, red is associated with greater sexual attractiveness of females. Five female confederates in their early 20s posed as hitchhikers wearing T‐shirts of different colors (black, white, red, blue, green, or yellow). It was found that the women wearing red solicited a higher response in the number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride. No color effect was found when considering the behavior of female drivers. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2012     

A comparative study on perceptual evaluations of sports shoe exterior colors in Taiwan

We investigated consumer psychology, perception, and aesthetics in relation to sports shoe colors in Taiwan. Semantic differential rating (three emotional adjective pairs) and preference rating questionnaires were distributed among 512 university students to investigate whether their responses to various sports shoe colors differed. The results show that black is one of the most popular colors for sports shoes. The participants preferred designs that incorporated white as the secondary color and disliked those that featured green as the main and secondary colors. In addition, designs incorporating black or red as the main color with a bright color as the secondary color were considered modern. Black and white designs were perceived to be more suited to formal occasions. Furthermore, when the area of the main color exceeded that of the secondary color, the participants perceived a strong sense of simplicity, unless the colors were blue and green. The participants preferred two‐color over one‐color designs, and three‐color designs had a higher correlation with participant preferences. Women required more time than men to evaluate a sample. The men typically examined the samples from a frontal angle, whereas the women focused on the sides of the sample. The scoring scale was polarized (e.g., highest score for modern was ?10 and 10 for retro), rendering the values of the Pearson correlation coefficient analysis comparatively low, resulting in weak correlations between variables. However, the relative differences of these values retained referential value regarding objective quantification. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 178–193, 2015     

Bayesian analysis of color preferences: An application for product and product line design

When choosing which colors to offer in their product lines, firms often rely upon consumer preference models that do not account for the heterogeneity of their target market and do not consider the trade‐offs consumers are willing to make for different color options. For this research we used visual conjoint analysis to assess preference for backpack color and then modeled respondent utilities with a Bayesian hierarchal multinomial logit model. This provided counter intuitive results in which product line color options are not additive but each color changes depending on the number of options the firm is willing to offer and that colors which seem to dominate secondary preferences within a target market may not be the best colors to choose for product line expansion. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 445–456, 2016     

Effects of nine monochromatic office interior colors on clerical tasks and worker mood

A pre- and post-between groups experimental design with nine treatment groups was conducted to determine the effects of interior office colors on subjects' clerical task performance, mood, and color preference. A total of 675 subjects participated in the study. The dependent variables were proofreading performance tasks, six mood states, and color preference. Independent variables were nine office colors, two saturation levels (high or low), two value levels (dark or light), warmth or coolness of the colors, and gender. The data were analyzed by using multivariate analyses of covariance and analyses of variance. The results showed that subjects made significantly more proofreading errors in the white office than in the blue and red offices. Females performed significantly better than males. Moreover, the saturation of the colors seemed to be a salient predictor of differences between females and males. Females indicated more depression, confusion, and anger in low-saturated office colors (white, gray, beige), whereas males reported more depression, confusion, and anger in the high-saturated office colors (green, blue, purple, red, yellow, and orange). Further, subjects revealed that they would be least likely to work in the orange and purple color offices and prefer to work in the beige and white offices. Implications for future research on the effects of colors on office worker performance and mood are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.