Development of a full 3D numerical model to investigate the hydraulic fracture propagation under the impact of orthogonal natural fractures

Although hydraulic fracturing has been massively studied and applied as a key technique to enhance the gas production from tight formations, some problems and uncertainties exist to accurately predict and analyze the fracture behavior in complex reservoirs, especially in the naturally fractured reservoirs like shale reservoirs. This paper presents a full 3D numerical model (FLAC3D) to study hydraulic fracturing behavior under the impact of preexisting orthogonal natural fractures. In this numerical model, the hydraulic fracture propagation direction is assumed perpendicular to the minimum principal stress and activated only by tensile failure, whereas the preexisting natural fractures can be activated by tensile or shear failure or a combination of them, and only tensile failure can open the natural fracture as well. The newly developed model was used to study the impact of preexisting orthogonal natural fractures on hydraulic fracturing behavior, based on a multistage hydraulic fracturing operation in a naturally fractured reservoir from the Barnett Shale formation, northwest of Texas in USA. In this multistage operation, two more representative stages, i.e., stage 1 with a relatively large horizontal stress anisotropy of 3.3 MPa and stage 4 with a comparatively small one of 1.3 MPa, were selected to conduct the simulation. Based on the numerical results, one can observe that the interaction between hydraulic and natural fracture is driven mainly by induced stress around fracture tip. Besides, the horizontal stress anisotropy plays a key role in opening the natural fracture. Thus, no significant opened fracture is activated on natural fracture in stage 1, while in stage 4 an opened fracture invades to about 90 m into the first natural fracture. Conversely, the hydraulic fracture length in stage 1 is much longer than in stage 4, as some fluid volume is stored in the opened natural fracture in stage 4. In this work, the shear failure on natural fractures is treated as the main factor for inducing the seismic events. And the simulated seismic events, i.e., shear failure on natural fractures, are very comparable with the measured seismic events.

     

Laboratory investigation of hydraulic fracture propagation using real-time ultrasonic measurement in shale formations with random natural fractures

The significance of natural fractures in unconventional shale hydrocarbon formations has opened new research frontiers in hydraulic fracturing. Among many of its unique contributions to gas production, the interaction between natural fractures and hydraulic fractures has long been experimentally and computationally investigated. Here, we experimentally investigated the evolution of the fracturing network with a self-developed ultrasonic testing system. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the propagation of hydraulic fracture in naturally fractured model blocks that contain random micro-fractures. Our analysis suggests that the total fracture width obtained by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) can reflect the dynamic evolution of the fracturing network. The nonlinear fracturing network evolution process is closely related to the variation of the total fracture width. It is suggested from the total fracture width that the maximum fracture network can be realized with greater natural fracture density, large injection rate, and smaller stress ratio. The study presents a better insight into the response of random naturally fractured shale formation under hydraulic fracturing treatment by analyzing the variation of UPV in real time.     

Anisotropic porothermoelastic solution and hydro‐thermal effects on fracture width in hydraulic fracturing

In this study, the effects of the temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and rock formation on the time‐dependent evolution of fracture width were investigated using a newly derived one‐dimensional anisotropic porothermoelastic analytical solution. The solution is shown to correctly reproduce existing solutions for special cases and corrections for an earlier publication are provided. An analysis of time‐dependent fracture width evolution using Woodford Shale data was also presented. It was found that when the fracturing fluid has the same temperature as the shale formation, the fracture gradually closes back after the initial opening due to the invasion of the fracturing fluid. Practically, in this scenario, proppants should be pumped into the fracture as soon as possible to obtain maximum fracture conductivity. On the other hand, with a fracturing fluid 60 °C colder than the formation, the thermal contraction of the rock dominates the fracture aperture evolution, resulting in a fracture aperture approximately 70% larger than that produced by the hotter fracturing fluid. Consequently, in this case, it is beneficial to delay proppant placement to take advantage of the widening fractures. Finally, it was found that the fracture aperture is directly controlled by the spacing of natural fractures. Therefore, the presence of natural fractures in the shale formation and their spacing influence not only the type of hydraulic fractures created but also what kind and size of proppants should be used to keep them open. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

预制横缝条件下水力裂缝的起裂和扩展

针对高角度天然裂缝发育地层中的水平井水力压裂问题,开展了水力裂缝自天然裂缝处起裂扩展的理论和试验研究。尝试将天然裂缝简化为与井筒轴线垂直的横向裂缝,基于线弹性断裂力学理论和最大拉应力准则,给出了水力裂缝起裂压力和扩展过程中应力强度因子的计算方法。利用预制横缝模拟高角度天然裂缝,开展了室内水力压裂试验,对水力裂缝的扩展形态和起裂压力进行了研究。理论计算表明,（1）水力裂缝自预制横缝端部起裂后,扩展距离超过1倍的预制横缝端部半径时可将预制横缝和水力裂缝合并起来,整体视作一条横向裂缝来计算应力强度因子;（2）水力裂缝尖端距井壁处的距离大于4倍的井筒半径时,应力强度因子的计算可忽略井筒的影响,近似采用硬币形裂缝的计算公式。试验研究发现,（1）水力裂缝在预制横缝端部起裂并扩展,形成与井筒轴线垂直的横向裂缝,裂缝的扩展呈现出Ⅰ型断裂的特点,形态近似呈圆形,未发现与井筒轴线平行的纵向裂缝的起裂和扩展;（2）排量对破裂净压力和起裂净压力有重要影响,大排量会导致较高的破裂净压力和起裂净压力,在大、小两种排量下起裂净压力的离散性均较小,计算得到的KⅠ临界断裂值的离散性也较小。研究结果可为改善裂缝发育储层的近井裂缝形态提供指导,也可为煤矿开采中预制横向切槽的水力压裂设计提供参考。     

天然裂缝影响下的花岗岩水力裂缝扩展数值模拟

水力压裂技术是成功实现干热岩资源开发利用的重要手段之一,数值模拟技术能够精准预测水力裂缝扩展。针对典型花岗岩,借助黏性单元法,分别模拟了致密花岗岩和天然裂缝存在情况下的水力裂缝扩展特征,得出以下结论：致密花岗岩的水力裂缝形态单一,天然裂缝的存在增加了压裂后裂缝的复杂性;致密花岗岩水力裂缝拓展主要分为憋压和拓展两个交替往复的阶段,当存在天然裂隙时,水力压裂过程会变得复杂;天然裂缝存在时,水力裂缝的缝长和缝宽分别为致密花岗岩的5. 7倍和1. 7倍;缝网的形成需要借助复杂的压裂工艺实现。研究结果可以为增强型地热系统(EGS)储层水力刺激工作提供理论支持。     

Numerical Modeling of Natural Fracture Distributions in Shale

The production efficiency of shale gas is affected by the interaction between hydraulic and natural fractures. This study presents a simulation of natural fractures in shale reservoirs, based on a discrete fracture network (DFN) method for hydraulic fracturing engineering. Fracture properties of the model are calculated from core fracture data, according to statistical mathematical analysis. The calculation results make full use of the quantitative information of core fracture orientation, density, opening and length, which constitute the direct and extensive data of mining engineering. The reliability and applicability of the model are analyzed with regard to model size and density, a calculation method for dominant size and density being proposed. Then, finite element analysis is applied to a hydraulic fracturing numerical simulation of a shale fractured reservoir in southeastern Chongqing. The hydraulic pressure distribution, fracture propagation, acoustic emission information and in situ stress changes during fracturing are analyzed. The results show the application of fracture statistics in fracture modeling and the influence of fracture distribution on hydraulic fracturing engineering. The present analysis may provide a reference for shale gas exploitation.     

An explicitly coupled hydro‐geomechanical model for simulating hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary discrete fracture networks

Modeling hydraulic fracturing in the presence of a natural fracture network is a challenging task, owing to the complex interactions between fluid, rock matrix, and rock interfaces, as well as the interactions between propagating fractures and existing natural interfaces. Understanding these complex interactions through numerical modeling is critical to the design of optimum stimulation strategies. In this paper, we present an explicitly integrated, fully coupled discrete‐finite element approach for the simulation of hydraulic fracturing in arbitrary fracture networks. The individual physical processes involved in hydraulic fracturing are identified and addressed as separate modules: a finite element approach for geomechanics in the rock matrix, a finite volume approach for resolving hydrodynamics, a geomechanical joint model for interfacial resolution, and an adaptive remeshing module. The model is verified against the Khristianovich–Geertsma–DeKlerk closed‐form solution for the propagation of a single hydraulic fracture and validated against laboratory testing results on the interaction between a propagating hydraulic fracture and an existing fracture. Preliminary results of simulating hydraulic fracturing in a natural fracture system consisting of multiple fractures are also presented. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

煤层气井水力压裂同层多裂缝分析

多裂缝理论是水力压裂理论的前沿理论,特别是对裂隙发育、物理力学性质有别于均质砂岩的煤岩,其研究难度较大,面临问题很多。根据弹性力学、岩石力学、断裂力学和流体力学等学科基本理论,结合多裂缝理论与井底压力协同理论,对在天然裂隙发育的煤层同时开启的多裂缝模型进行了分析与计算。结果显示,综合滤失系数、流量、主应力差等均不同程度影响了多裂缝在近井筒区域的汇合相连概率与延伸方向。      

Fracturing and Episodic Fluid Expulsion in Pressure Compartments

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水平井中多条裂缝同步扩展时裂缝竞争机制

水平井中多条水力裂缝间的应力干扰行为,造成了压裂液排量的非均匀分配,影响了水力裂缝的几何形态。采用边界元法研究岩体在压裂液作用下的变形程度,以幂律流体泊肃叶平板流动方程来研究水力裂缝内部的压裂液流场,考虑了多条裂缝间应力干扰和压裂液流量分配,建立了流-固耦合的水平井多条水力裂缝同步扩展模型。模型可模拟水平井多条水力裂缝几何形态、应力干扰情况和压裂液排量的分配情况,可解释水力裂缝之间的竞争机制。多条裂缝同步扩展时,压裂液排量并非均等地分配到各个裂缝之中,进入到内部裂缝的压裂液流量最小,内部裂缝宽度最小;内部的水力裂缝增长一定长度后,停止增长,并且在应力干扰下逐渐闭合。     

Fracture closure modes during flowback from hydraulic fractures

Flowback analysis recently has been considered as a potential tool for assessing induced fractures through corresponding pressure analyses and rate transient analysis. In this paper, we study fracture closure mechanisms during the flowback of fracturing fluid after hydraulic fracturing treatments. Although it is known that flowback can be significantly affected by the geometry of the fractures and closure stress, there has not been any effort to understand the problem from the geomechanical point of view; rather, available studies assume that a fracture closes uniformly with constant fracture compressibility. The coupled geomechanics and fluid flow model presented in this paper help to elucidate how geostresses may affect fracturing fluid recovery under different conditions. We perform a scaling analysis to formulate the occurrence of different fracture closure modes and then use numerical analyses to verify our scaling parameters. The factors governing the flowback process include the mechanical and petrophysical properties of the rock as well as preexisting discontinuities such as natural fractures. Three different closure modes for fracture networks are described and numerically verified. The occurrence of each mode can dramatically affect fracturing fluid recovery. The role of fluid leakoff into the formation, fractures conductivity, and drawdown strategy are examined for each fracture closure scenario.     

煤层水力压裂应力与裂隙演化的细观规律

水力压裂作为煤层强化增透技术的一种,其应力演化特征及裂隙形态与扩展范围的判断尤为重要。采用离散元数值方法,以导向压裂为背景,建立水力压裂流固耦合模型;通过应力路径、裂纹热点图等手段,探究水力压裂过程中压裂排量、泊松比、天然裂隙密度对应力演化和裂隙演化的影响及其细观规律。结果表明:不同压裂排量下的应力演化方向及最终应力路径曲线形状有着明显的不同,低排量下裂隙附近的应力比值逐渐增大,而在高排量下先增大后减小;煤层泊松比越大,平均压裂半径越低,但对起裂时间及裂隙的扩展形态影响不明显;天然裂隙的发育情况对水力裂隙的扩展起着关键性作用,高裂隙发育煤层水力裂隙扩展的方向性无法预测,应力演化方向会出现反转现象;压裂过程中不同区域的应力演化特征能够反映出裂隙的扩展状态,现场可通过监测压裂区域附近应力变化,判断水力压裂缝网的扩展范围。      

基于扩展有限元法的碳酸盐岩地热储层岩体裂缝扩展行为

水力压裂作为一种主要的地热能开采手段,其压裂效果除与岩体基本物理力学性质有关外,还与裂隙分布、地应力状态、压裂工程参数等密切相关.为了探究以上因素对水力压裂过程中裂缝扩展行为的影响,以冀中坳陷碳酸盐岩储层岩体为研究对象,基于扩展有限元法,建立裂缝扩展流固耦合模型,分析了水平应力差、射孔方位角、注入液排量和压裂液黏度等参数对裂缝扩展行为的影响.结果表明:单裂缝扩展时,射孔方位角越小、注入量越大、越有利于裂缝扩展;双裂缝扩展时,水平应力差增大,裂缝偏转程度变小;水力裂缝与天然裂缝相交时,较小水平应力差有利于天然裂缝开启.      

Semianalytical modeling on 3D stress redistribution during hydraulic fracturing stimulation and its effects on natural fracture reactivation

The hydraulic fracturing technique has been widely applied in many fields, such as the enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), the improvement of injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO₂, and for the stimulations of oil and gas reservoirs. The key points for the success of hydraulic fracturing operations in unconventional resources are to accurately estimate the redistribution of pore pressure and stresses around the induced fracture and predict the reactivations of preexisting natural fractures. The pore pressure and stress regime around hydraulic fracture are affected by poroelastic and thermoelastic phenomena as well as by fracture opening compression. In this work, a comprehensive semi-analytical model is used to estimate the stress and pore pressure distribution around an injection-induced fracture from a single well in an infinite reservoir. The model allows the leak-off distribution in the formation to be three-dimensional with the pressure transient moving ellipsoidically outward into the reservoir from the fracture surface. The pore pressure and the stress changes in three dimensions at any point around the fracture caused by poroelasticity, thermoelasticity, and fracture compression are investigated. With Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, we calculate the natural fracture reactivations in the reservoir. Then, two case studies of constant water injection into a hydraulic fracture are presented. This work is of interest in the interpretation of microseismicity in hydraulic fracturing and in the estimation of the fracture spacing for hydraulic fracturing operations. In addition, the results from this study can be very helpful for the selection of stimulated wells and further design of the refracturing operations.     

Optimization and Evaluation of Multiple Hydraulically Fractured Parameters in Random Naturally Fractured Model Blocks: An Experimental Investigation

Researchers have recently realized that the non-tectonic natural fractures are developed in shale formations and significant for the exploitation of shale gas. Studies have shown that the tectonic fractures in naturally fractured reservoirs have influences on the maximization of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) during hydraulic fracturing. However, the effect of the non-tectonic randomly natural fractures on the fracturing network propagation is not well understood. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the evolution of fracturing network in naturally fractured formations with specimens that contain non-tectonic random fractures. The influences of the dominating factors were studied and analyzed, with an emphasis on natural fracture density, stress ratio, and injection rate. The response surface methodology was employed to perform the multiple-factor analysis and optimization in the maximization of the SRV. A sensitivity study reveals a number of interesting observations resulting from these parameters on the fracturing network evaluation. It is suggested from the geometry morphology of fracturing network that high natural fracture density and injection rate tend to maximize the fracturing network. The influence of stress contrast on fracturing network is nonlinear; an optimal value exists resulting in the best hydraulic fracturing effectiveness.     

川南深层页岩水力压裂缝网扩展规律数值模拟研究

3500 m以深页岩气资源量占整个川南地区总资源量的比例高达86.5%,该区深层页岩气藏构造复杂,压裂形成复杂缝网的难度大,有必要通过数值模拟研究深层页岩气复杂缝网主控因素,对实现川南地区深层页岩气的效益开发具有重要意义。在对川南地区页岩气气田某井的岩芯进行细观尺度下的观察并构建二维裂缝模型的基础上,利用位移间断边界元法(DDM)模拟深层页岩水力压裂过程中水力裂缝与天然裂缝相互作用的物理力学过程,研究主应力、应力差和压裂液排量对裂缝扩展的影响。结果表明:在高应力差条件下缝网的复杂程度和总长度急剧降低,缝网的平均宽度增大,且平均宽度随排量增加而增大的能力变得有限。在高应力差条件下提升压裂液排量,缝网长度的增加以产生新生裂缝为主,同时提升排量对于激活天然裂缝有一定的提升作用,但是效果有限。相比于拉张裂缝,剪切裂缝的形成受主应力和压裂液排量的影响更显著,在高应力差条件下缝网中剪切裂缝的长度急剧降低。随着压裂液的注入,在较低应力差和相同压裂液注入量的情况下,低排量工况下的裂缝长度逐渐大于高排量工况下的裂缝长度。在应力差较高的情况下裂缝扩展的速率较低,同时会使提升排量而形成更多新生裂缝的能力变得有限。基于显微镜观察构建的裂缝模型计算出的结果能够较好地符合场地实际,为深层水力压裂设计和施工提供参考。     

大尺寸真三轴页岩水平井水力压裂物理模拟试验与裂缝延伸规律分析

采用真三轴物理模型试验机、水力压裂伺服系统、声发射定位系统以及压裂液中添加示踪剂等方式,在真三轴条件下对大尺寸页岩水平井进行了水力压裂物理模拟试验,通过裂缝的动态监测和压裂后剖切等分析了裂缝的扩展规律,并对页岩压裂缝网的形成机制进行了初步探讨。结果表明：（1）水力裂缝自割缝处起裂并扩展、压开或贯穿层理面,形成相对较复杂的裂缝形态;（2）裂缝中既有垂直于层理面的新生水力主裂缝,又有沿弱层理面扩展延伸的次级裂缝,形成了纵向和横向裂缝并存的裂缝网络;（3）水力裂缝在延伸过程中会发生转向而逐渐垂直最小主应力;（4）水力裂缝在扩展过程中遇到弱层理面时的止裂、分叉、穿过和转向现象是形成页岩储层复杂裂缝网络的主要原因,而弱结构面的大量存在是形成复杂裂缝的基础。其研究结果可为页岩气藏水平井分段压裂开采等提供有力技术支持。     

薄互层水力裂缝垂向扩展控制因素试验研究

新疆油田某地区油藏的储隔层岩性组合复杂,呈现突出的薄互层产状特征,研究合、分压判断条件有利于提高压裂效率,增强储层动用程度与压后改造效果。水力裂缝在薄互层中的穿层与裂缝扩展行为受薄互层地质特征与压裂施工参数的影响。基于此,开展了薄互层物理模型压裂试验,研究界面胶结、岩层分布、岩层厚度、压裂液黏度与注液排量对薄互层中水力裂缝垂向扩展的影响分析。试验结果表明：薄互层的地层特征界面胶结与岩层分布是水力裂缝垂向扩展的主要控制因素,界面胶结强度对裂缝垂向扩展行为的影响强于岩层分布;由于弱胶结界面的存在,水力裂缝垂向扩展穿层时可发生方向偏转,抑制裂缝垂向扩展;提高压裂液黏度与注液排量有利于薄互层中水力裂缝的穿层垂向扩展。     

不同煤体结构煤的水力压裂裂缝延伸规律

查明不同煤体结构煤水力压裂时裂缝延伸规律能为合理井网部署奠定基础。以沁水盆地柿庄区块为研究对象,对钻井煤心裂隙进行观测,划分出4种裂隙发育程度煤。基于岩体力学理论,建立了水力压裂过程中裂缝尖端应力场计算模型和水力裂缝能否穿过天然裂隙的判断准则。根据煤层气井实测资料,验证了理论分析的可靠性,得出了不同煤体结构煤的水力压裂裂缝延伸规律。结果表明:考虑诱导应力前后,2组天然裂隙发育煤的水力裂缝延伸规律不同,随着缝长增加,诱导应力随之增大,水力裂缝单一延伸方向变为双向延伸;1组天然裂隙发育煤的发育方向与最大主应力方向夹角较小,导致考虑诱导应力前后水力裂缝的延伸方向变化不明显,整体延伸趋于天然裂隙发育方向;在粒状偶见及粉状无裂隙发育煤中,水力裂缝总是沿着最大主应力方向延伸。研究成果为该区不同应力和裂隙发育下井网合理布置提供了理论依据。      

Fully coupled simulation of a hydraulic fracture interacting with natural fractures with a hybrid discrete‐continuum method

A hybrid discrete‐continuum numerical scheme is developed to study the behavior of a hydraulic fracture crossing natural fractures. The fully coupled hybrid scheme utilizes a discrete element model for an inner domain, within which the hydraulic fracture propagates and interacts with natural fractures. The inner domain is embedded in an outer continuum domain that is implemented to extend the length of the hydraulic fracture and to better approximate the boundary effects. The fracture is identified to propagate initially in the viscosity‐dominated regime, and the numerical scheme is calibrated by using the theoretical plane strain hydraulic fracture solution. The simulation results for orthogonal crossing indicate three fundamental crossing scenarios, which occur for various stress ratios and friction coefficients of the natural fracture: (i) no crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture is arrested by the natural fracture and makes a T‐shape intersection; (ii) offset crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture crosses the natural fracture with an offset; and (iii) direct crossing, that is, the hydraulic fracture directly crosses the natural fracture without diversion. Each crossing scenario is associated with a distinct net pressure history. Additionally, the effects of strength contrast and stiffness contrast of rock materials and intersection angle between the hydraulic fracture and the natural fracture are also investigated. The simulations also illustrate that the level of fracturing complexity increases as the number and extent of the natural fractures increase. As a result, we can conclude that complex hydraulic fracture propagation patterns occur because of complicated crossing behavior during the stimulation of naturally fractured reservoirs. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.