Adolescent Attachment Trajectories With Mothers and Fathers: The Importance of Parent–Child Relationship Experiences and Gender

This longitudinal study investigated how attachment with mothers and fathers changes during adolescence, and how gender and parent–child relationship experiences are associated with attachment trajectories. The relative importance of specific positive and negative relationship experiences on attachment trajectories was also examined. An initial sample of 223 adolescents reported on relationship experiences and attachment avoidance and anxiety with mothers and fathers in Grades 6, 8, 10, and 12 (final N = 110; M_age = 11.90 years at onset, SD = .43). Mothers and fathers reported on relationship experiences with adolescents. Hierarchical linear modeling showed that security with parents increased during adolescence. Positive relationship experiences (companionship, satisfaction, approval, support) predicted increases in security, and negative experiences (pressure, criticism) predicted decreases in security. Females reported less avoidance than males.     

Parent–Child Conflict and Suicide Rumination in College Students: The Mediating Roles of Depressive Symptoms and Anxiety Sensitivity

Abstract

Objective: Parent–child conflict, depressive symptoms, and anxiety sensitivity have each been identified as risk factors for suicide ideation in college students. This study examined the relations among these risk factors and suicide rumination utilizing transition theory to guide the hypothesized relations. Participants: Undergraduate college students participated in this study in the spring of 2012 (January to May). Methods: Participants completed self-report measures of parent–child conflict, depressive symptoms, anxiety sensitivity, and suicide rumination, among other measures. Hypothesized pathways and mediation were tested using path analysis. Results: Suicide rumination was positively and uniquely predicted by depressive symptoms, anxiety sensitivity, and parent–child conflict. The relation between parent–child conflict and suicide rumination was, in part, accounted for by depressive symptoms and anxiety sensitivity. Conclusions: Results suggest that it would be advisable for clinicians to assess for students’ conflicts with their parents in conjunction with their levels of depression and anxiety when assessing for suicide risk.     

Maternal victimization and child trauma: The mediating role of mothers' affect

This study examined the effects of maternal childhood and adult victimization on child trauma symptomatology both directly and indirectly via three types of maternal affective problems as mediators (depression, anxiety, and hostility). A high proportion of mothers in the sample reported a history of childhood or adulthood physical and sexual abuse and findings showed that these experiences impacted how victimized women may function as parents. Mothers' adult victimization had a stronger effect on children compared to maternal childhood victimization. The relationship between maternal adult victimization and child trauma symptoms was mediated by maternal depression. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between both maternal childhood and adulthood victimization and child trauma symptoms, but anxiety played a buffering role. Maternal hostility was associated with both childhood and adulthood victimization, but did not serve as a mediator. Implications for practice with victimized mothers and their children are discussed.     

The impact of parent and child media use on early parent–infant attachment

With the rise in affordability of digital media and mobile devices, children under age 2 on average spend significantly more time with digital media than is recommended. Although concerns have been expressed about how parent and child media use might negatively impact parent–child attachment, there continues to be a scarcity of research on the topic. The current study assessed both the amount and the way in which children (11–26 months) and their parents engage with digital media and the impact on early attachment after controlling for temperament, parent income, parent age, marital status, and access to support. The study utilizes data from a diverse sample: 248 parents of infants completed an attachment q-sort and surveys assessing the amount of media use, parental absorption in media, types of parental mediation, temperament, and demographics. Results showed that for both parent and child, time using digital media and co-viewing was not predictive of attachment insecurity. Parental absorption in media was found to significantly predict attachment insecurity. Greater child TV media use was associated with poorer attachment security when there was limited to no parental active mediation. Active mediation served as a protective factor for attachment while parental absorption in media serves as a risk factor for attachment.     

Emulating Parental Levels of Taking Conflict Personally: Associations with Behavioral and Mental Health Outcomes in Adult Children

Taking conflict personally (TCP) is a construct that measures individuals’ tendency to perceive conflict as a personal attack and focus less on the content of a conflict. This study examined parent–child transmissions of the six dimensions of TCP, as well as the relationship between adult child TCP and their conflict communication, depressive symptoms, and anxiety. Data were collected from 110 (N = 330) mother–father–child triads. The results showed significant links between father-child reports of persecuted feelings (i.e., belief that others intentionally provoke conflict) and stress reactions (i.e., psychological reaction) during conflict. There were also significant links between mother–child reports of positive and negative relational effect (i.e., belief that conflict benefits/damages relationships). Adult children’s reports of four of the six TCP dimensions were associated with their depressive symptoms and anxiety, and the results showed significant indirect effects from parent TCP to adult child verbal aggression, constructive conflict, depressive symptoms, and anxiety.     

The Impact of Parental Attachment on Adolescent Perception of the School Environment and School Connectedness

The extent to which students feel accepted, valued, respected and included in the school has recently surfaced as one of the most important predictors of adolescent mental health (particularly depressive symptoms). The school environment is an established predictor of school connectedness, but we set out to examine whether parental attachment predicts both adolescents' perception of the school environment and school connectedness. A study of 171 high school students from years 8 to 12 showed that parent attachment strongly predicted both. We also confirmed that the relationship between parent attachment and school connectedness is not a direct one but that parent attachment influences individual differences in the way adolescents perceive the school environment, which in turn influences school connectedness. This finding shows how multiple systems might be interlinked in influencing wellbeing in adolescents, and confirms the importance of intervening at the double level of both the family and the school system.     

Attachment insecurities and under-commitment in distressed couples: The role of positive and negative partner behaviors

Research has rarely considered intermediate variables in the association between attachment insecurities and relationship commitment. Based on attachment theory and Rusbult's Investment Model, we tested whether positive and negative partner behaviors explain this association in 91 distressed couples undergoing therapy. Path analyses based on the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model revealed that individuals with attachment avoidance reported perceiving fewer positive behaviors from their partner, which was associated with their own higher under-commitment. Partners of individuals with avoidance also reported perceiving fewer positive partner behaviors, which was in turn associated with their own higher under-commitment. Partners of individuals with attachment anxiety perceived more positive behaviors from their partner, which was associated to their own lower under-commitment. Perceived negative partner behaviors were only directly associated with higher under-commitment. These findings imply that perceived positive partner behaviors may be a key aspect to target in relationship therapy in couples who present with high attachment insecurities.     

Paths to Intimate Relationship Quality From Parent–Adolescent Relations and Mental Health

Using a developmental systems perspective and public‐use longitudinal data from participants currently in a romantic relationship at Wave 4 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 2,970), the current study explored direct and indirect paths from parent–adolescent relationship quality to young adult intimate relationship quality. Structural equation modeling tested whether mental health (depressive symptoms and self‐esteem) in the transition to adulthood mediated the association between parent–adolescent relations and young adult intimate relations. The results indicated that higher quality parent–adolescent relations predicted higher self‐esteem and lower depressive symptoms during the transition to adulthood as well as higher young adult intimate relationship quality, controlling for adolescent mental health and parent–young adult relationship quality. Higher self‐esteem during the transition to adulthood was associated with greater intimate relationship quality, whereas greater depressive symptomatology predicted reduced intimate relationship quality. One significant indirect path emerged: parent–adolescent relationship quality → self‐esteem → intimate relationship quality.     

The Association of Maternal Depressive Symptoms with Child Externalizing Problems: The Role of Maternal Support Following Child Sexual Abuse

This study examines the role of abuse-specific maternal support in the association between parent depressive symptoms and child externalizing problems in a sample of children with a history of sexual abuse. In total, 106 mother–child dyads were studied. The association between maternal depressive symptoms and child delinquency behaviors was found to partially operate through abuse-specific maternal support, which was assessed via parent report. Implications of the findings for parenting programs are discussed, and future research directions are considered.     

Long‐Term Effects of Fathers' Depressed Mood on Youth Internalizing Symptoms in Early Adulthood

While an accumulating body of research has documented increased risk of psychopathology among children of depressed fathers, most studies have used cross‐sectional design, and little is known about offspring outcomes beyond childhood. Using prospective data from a community sample (N = 395), we found that paternal depressive symptoms when children were in early adolescence (age 13) predicted offspring depressive and anxiety symptoms at age 21, controlling for baseline youth symptoms, maternal depressive symptoms, and other known correlates of internalizing problems in early adulthood. Associations were not moderated by maternal depressive symptoms or child gender. These results suggest that the unique and long‐term effects of paternal depression on children's risk of mood disorders may persist into adulthood.     

A Description of Attachment in Adoptive Parents and Adoptees in Romania During Early Adolescence

This study is an assessment of different components of attachment for a sample of Romanian adoptees and their parents, both who participated in the project (n = 63). Results suggest that various aspects of the parent–child relationship in early adolescence is quite positive from both the adoptee and adoptive parent perspective. However, almost half (46 %) of the adoptees were assessed as having insecure attachment. There are differences between all components of parental attachment and adoptee attachment security. Also, insecure attachment is more likely to occur with less optimal parenting style. Implications for social work practice and research are discussed.     

Anxiety/Depression and Hostility/Suspiciousness in Adolescent Boys: Testing Adherence to Honor Code as Mediator of Callousness and Attachment Insecurity

Research of psychological distress (PD) needs to differentiate between anxiety/depression and hostility/suspiciousness, which are associated with different motivational systems. In this study, structural equation modeling was used to test two hypothesized models for the prediction of each facet of PD. Hypotheses were proposed about the effects of callousness and attachment insecurity, and the mediating role of adherence to honor code (AHC), with respect to each PD facet. AHC was defined by the endorsement of honor culture attitudes. The sample included 136 adolescent boys from high‐ and low‐level Israeli schools. The results supported the differentiation between two PD models. AHC mediated the prediction of hostility/suspiciousness by callousness and attachment insecurity. Age and attachment insecurity predicted anxiety/depression. However, AHC and callousness did not predict anxiety/depression.     

Discrepancies About Adolescent Relationships as a Function of Informant Attachment and Depressive Symptoms

Developmental scientists studying interpersonal relationships often find that informants disagree in their reports, and two theoretical perspectives suggest that these discrepancies may be predictable. In two studies of adolescents' interpersonal relationships, we examined two factors that may predict the absolute magnitude and the direction of the discrepancies in reports about several types of relationships. Specifically, we examined informants' depressive symptoms and attachment as predictors of absolute and directional discrepancies in reports about (a) adolescents' relationships with peers, (b) parent–adolescent relationships, and (c) adolescents' friendships. Findings revealed that informant depressive symptoms sometimes were associated with discrepancies. In contrast, informant attachment more consistently accounted for absolute and directional discrepancies.     

Parental Depression and Anxiety and Early Childhood Behavior Problems Across Family Types

Using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we examine the association between parental major depressive and generalized anxiety disorders and child behavior problems across family types: married, cohabiting, involved nonresident father, and noninvolved nonresident father. Among 3‐year‐olds in all families, maternal anxiety/depression is associated with increased odds of anxious/depressed, attention deficit, and oppositional defiant disorders (N = 2,120). Paternal anxiety/depression has no significant association with these problem behaviors; father’s illness, however, exacerbates anxious/depressed behaviors in young children if both parents are ill and he is coresident. The findings underscore the importance of maternal mental health for child well‐being and suggest that a negative interaction between parent illnesses is most likely when parents and children share the same disorder.     

Parental Divorce and Romantic Attachment in Young Adulthood: Important Role of Problematic Beliefs

In the current study 45 university students with either divorced or continuously married parents were surveyed about their romantic attachment, positive emotionality, depressive symptomology, self-esteem, and, when applicable, their retrospective beliefs about their parents’ marital dissolution. Findings revealed that parental divorce did not predict attachment insecurity, depression, or low self-esteem. In fact, adult children of divorced parents (ACDP) reported increased compassion, awe, enthusiasm, and perspective taking. Among ACDP, a composite factor representing increased fear of abandonment, peer rejection, and maternal blame was positively associated with adult attachment anxiety, even while controlling for parental conflict and divorce-related socioenvironmental disruption. Results are discussed in terms of their support of a complex understanding of the long-term effects of parental divorce, and in their inconsistency with a purely pathogenic model of parental divorce.     

A Test of the Economic Strain Model on Adolescents' Prosocial Behaviors

The present study was designed to examine the links between economic strain, parental depression, parent–child connectedness, and adolescents' prosocial behaviors. The sample consisted of 478 participants (M age at Time 1=11.29 years, 51% male) recruited from the community who were mostly of European American descent (69%) and from mostly middle to upper SES families. At Time 1 parents completed measures of their own income and economic stress, depression, and connectedness with their child. At Time 1 adolescents reported on connectedness with both their mother and father. At Time 2 (1 year later) adolescents reported on their own prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family. Structural equation model tests showed that economic strain was related positively to parental depressive symptoms, which in turn predicted lower levels of parent–child connectedness, which in turn positively predicted adolescents' prosocial behaviors. Discussion focuses on the family context of adolescents' positive behavioral outcomes.     

Predisposing Factors for Elevated Restricted and Repetitive Behavior in Typically Developing Toddlers

Little is known about the relation between levels of restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB) in infants and parent factors. The present study investigated maternal and psychosocial factors (depressive symptoms, socio‐economic status, social support) and mother–infant engagement factors (mind‐mindedness, sensitivity, and infant–mother attachment security) as predictors of children's RRB at age 26 months in a sample of 206 mothers and children. Maternal depressive symptoms predicted levels of sensory and motor repetitive behavior and rigid, routinized, and ritualistic repetitive behavior. Lower socioeconomic status also predicted independent variance in children's sensory and motor repetitive behavior. The relations between maternal depressive symptoms and both types of RRB were not mediated through observational measures of maternal sensitivity or mind‐mindedness at 8 months, or attachment security at 15 months. The results are discussed in terms of whether stress regulation, self‐stimulation, and genetic susceptibility can help explain the observed link between maternal depressive symptoms and RRB in the child.     

Early parenting and depression: The mediating role of anger control

Applying an attachment theoretical perspective, this study examined the relationship pattern between childhood parenting experience and adulthood depression and how it was mediated by anger control. The data were based on the National Comorbidity Study Replication (2001–2003), in which 1,579 participants met DSM-IV criteria for lifetime major depressive disorder (17%) and 2,242 participants (24.2%) reported that they perceived their anger to be out of control. The mediation hypothesis was tested with logistic regression models. Results showed that childhood parenting experience was significantly related to major depressive disorder and anger control. A significant indirect effect of anger control was detected through bootstrap analysis, supporting the partial mediation hypothesis. This study represents the first attempt to examine the mediating role of anger control in the relationship between early parenting and depressive disorder. The findings of this study suggest that early parenting experience may be an important factor for consideration in research aiming to understand the sequential relationship between anger control and depression.     

Relationship Difficulties as a Conduit from Hyperactivity to Depressive Symptoms

Based on the interpersonal model of depression, disrupted social relationships can lead to depression and childhood hyperactivity can disrupt those crucial relationships. Hyperactivity and the interactions between hyperactivity and interpersonal relations/social support in predicting depression are investigated based on data collected from 100 youth aged 8–14 and their parents. Hierarchical multiple regression indicated main effects for children’s report of hyperactivity and classmate support and an interaction between hyperactivity and classmate support in predicting children’s report of depression. Using parent’s report of child hyperactivity, there was a main effect for classmate support and an interaction between hyperactivity and parent report of family cohesion in predicting depressive symptoms. Results are consistent with past research, suggesting hyperactivity may compromise family and peer relationships, leading to depressive symptoms.     

The History and Timing of Depression Onset as Predictors of Young Adult Self‐Esteem

Depression often emerges early in the lifecourse and is consistently shown to be associated with poor self‐esteem. The 3 main objectives of the current study are to (1) evaluate the association between a history major depression and self‐esteem in young adulthood, (2) assess the relationship between timing of depression onset and young adult self‐esteem, and (3) help rule out the alternative interpretation that the relationship between major depression and self‐esteem is due to state dependence bias stemming from recent depressive symptoms and stressful life events. To address these objectives we use data from a 2‐wave panel study based on a community sample of young adults in Miami‐Dade County, Florida (n=1,197). Results indicated that a history of major depression during sensitive periods of social development is associated with negative changes in self‐esteem over a 2‐year period during the transition to young adulthood. Among those with a history of depression, earlier onset was more problematic than later onset for young adult self‐esteem, although the difference disappeared once the level of self‐esteem 2 years prior was controlled. The linkages between the history and timing of depression onset with self‐esteem were observed net of recent depressive symptoms and stressful life events and are thus robust to an alternative interpretation of state dependence. The findings support the argument that major depression, especially if it develops earlier during child‐adolescent development, has negative consequences for one's self‐esteem.