Material Flow Control and Optimization in High‐Pressure Sheet Metal Forming by Active‐Elastic Tools

High‐pressure forming of metal sheets is an innovative forming technology for the production of complex components and offers high potentials to improve the properties and qualities of sheet metal parts. This report describes investigations of a newly developed active‐elastic tool system referred to as ACTEC system. Unlike the use of a comparable semi‐rigid tool system, the ACTEC system shows improvements with respect to the material flow in the flange area and reduced sheet thinning in critical corner regions of the workpiece. In addition, the clamping forces respectively sealing forces necessary to avoid leakage in the tool system during the forming process can be reduced. Moreover, the specific design of the ACTEC‐system as well as current experimental examinations are presented and discussed.     

Gas‐pressure Forming of an AlMg‐Alloy Sheet at Elevated Temperatures

Forming of automotive leightweight parts using aluminium offers numerous advantages. Compared to other wrought aluminium alloys, in particular AlMg‐alloys generally show a good formability which is favourable for the production of complex parts. However, forming of Mg‐containing alloys at room temperature leads to yielding patterns preventing their implementation for class‐A‐surface applications. Furthermore, the formability of steel still exceeds that of AlMg‐alloys at room temperature. Thus, in the present study, sheet metal forming is applied at a temperature range that is typical for warm forming. It is supposed to profit from the advantages of warm forming like high achievable strains and improved surface quality of the formed part, while not having the disadvantages of long production times and high energy consumption, which is correlated with superplastic forming. Applying fluid‐based sheet metal forming in this paper, nitrogen is used as fluid working medium to satisfy the demand on high temperature resistance. Concerning the blank material used, formability of Mg‐containing aluminium alloys shows strong strain rate sensitivity at elevated temperatures. To figure out the optimal strain rates for this particular process, a control system for forming processes is developed within the scope of this paper. Additionally, FE‐simulations are carried out and adapted to the experiment, based on the generated process data. FE‐investigations include forming of domes (bulging) as well as shape‐defined forming, having the objective to increase formability in critical form elements by applying optimal strain rates. Here, a closed‐loop process control for gas‐pressure forming at elevated temperatures is to be developed in the next stages of the project.     

Innovative Flexible Metal Forming Processes based on Hybrid Thermo‐Mechanical Interaction

A new approach towards functional gradation of structural parts is presented. This approach is based on the utilization of locally varying thermo‐mechanically coupled effects applied to different initial workpiece geometries. The possible degree of freedom for the gradation of material properties and geometrical shape for sheet metal forming applications as well as for parts produced by bulk metal forming is characterized by the results of metallographic investigations, by mechanical testing and by an indication of the remaining residual stress state. On the basis of experimental results and process simulations, it could be revealed that the ability to exactly control the dynamic microstructural evolution by thermal and mechanical process parameters combined with predefined material design parameters constitutes a key towards the adjustment of flexible material property profiles even for parts with complex three‐dimensional geometry. Beyond that, the integrative aspect of thermal and mechanical treatment already implies the high level of obtainable efficiency resulting from shortening of process chains. However, it is not only the ability to integrate shape generation and property gradation, but also the automatically included positive effect of tailoring process behaviour by a gradation of formability finally allowing to improve process efficiency e.g. by a reduction of forming steps or reduction of (local) tool load.     

Properties of Large‐Scale Structure Workpieces in High‐Pressure Sheet Metal Forming of Tailor Rolled Blanks

In order to manufacture components optimised in regard to lightweight construction, the use of innovative forming processes like high‐pressure sheet metal forming (HBU) in combination with the use of tailor rolled blanks (TRB) as innovative semi‐finished material is a promising solution. Fundamental investigations on the HBU of TRB have been carried out in a joint research project at the Institute of Forming Technology and Lightweight Construction (IUL), University of Dortmund, and the Institute of Metal Forming (IBF), RWTH Aachen. The experiments performed with cylindrical parts have provided basic knowledge on the sheet material flow and resulting part properties. To achieve sufficient process reliability, a non‐adjustable as well as an adjustable seal system have been tested and proved to be suitable solutions, depending on thickness ratio and thickness gradient within the TRB. In order to demonstrate the lightweight potential of this process chain, a forming tool for an automotive body structure has been designed and tested. The experiments have shown that this large‐scale structure can well be manufactured in the HBU process from a TRB.     

热轧U型钢板桩精轧过程金属流动行为的有限元分析

针对热轧U型钢板桩(SY390BZ/%:0.23C、1.60Mn、0.44Si、0.18V,0.18Ti、0.05Nb)轧制过程中产生翘曲缺陷,采用有限元分析软件ABAQUS显式动力学算法,结合实验室试验测量参数,对钢板桩的精轧过程进行了仿真计算。在仿真计算的基础上,根据轧制平面内节点位移矢量分布情况,分析了轧件横向和纵向断面内金属流动规律。模拟结果显示轧件断面在孔型轧制的压下方向上存在零位移线,表明U型钢板桩轧制中坯料翼缘和锁口处在轧制压力方向上轧件内金属流动存在位移中性面,并伴有轧件锁口凸缘处金属流动过快,腹板处金属流动较慢而产生翘曲的现象。     

Prediction and Control of Wrinkle and Fracture for Stamping Regular Polygonal Box

Based on the deformation characteristic of regular polygonal box stamped parts and the superfluous triangle material wrinkle model, the criterion of regular polygonal box stamped parts without wrinkle was deduced and used to predict and control the wrinkle limit. According to the fracture model, the criterion of regular polygonal box stamped parts without fracture was deduced and used to predict and control the fracture limit. Combining the criterion for stamping without wrinkle with that without fracture, the stamping criterion of regular polygonal box stamped parts was obtained to predict and control the stamping limit. Taken the stainless steel 0Cr18Ni9 (SUS304) sheet and the square box stamped part as examples, the limit diagram was given to predict and control the wrinkle, fracture and stamping limits. It is suitable for the deep drawing without flange, the deep drawing and stretching combined forming with flange and the rigid punch stretching of plane blank. The limit deep-drawing coefficient and the minimum deep-drawing coefficient can be determined, and the appropriate BHF (blank holder force) and the deep-drawing force can be chosen. These provide a reference for the technology planning, the die and mold design and the equipment determination, and a new criterion evaluating sheet stamping formability, which predicts and controls the stamping process, can be applied to the deep drawing under constant or variable BHF conditions.     

Incremental Sheet Metal Forming: Numerical Simulation and Rapid Prototyping Process to make an Automobile White‐Body

In order to make an automobile body structure, incremental sheet metal forming is introduced as a rapid prototyping process. Numerical modeling of the process is initially used to predict the deformation of the sheet metal to avoid failure during the incremental forming process using ABAQUS/Explicit finite element code and OYANE's ductile fracture criterion via a VUMAT user material. An automobile CAD model is then designed, and segmented into several parts in order to accommodate the working space of the CNC machine and formability of sheet metal. After that, CAM software is used to generate a tool‐path for making wooden‐dies and all small parts. Finally, a welding process is applied to join all parts which were cut by laser cutting after incremental sheet forming process.     

Induction Heat Treatment of Sheet‐Bulk Metal‐Formed Parts Assisted by Water–Air Spray Cooling

In order to produce components with massive secondary functional elements from sheet metal bulk forming operations, termed sheet‐bulk metal forming, can be applied. Owing to high, three‐dimensional stress and strain states present during sheet‐bulk metal forming, ductile damage occurs in the form of micro‐voids. Depending on the material flow properties, tensile residual stresses can also be present in the components' formed functional elements. During service, the components are subjected to cyclic loading via these functional elements, and tensile residual stresses exert an unfavorable influence on crack initiation and crack growth, and therefore on the fatigue life. Following the forming process, temperature and microstructurally related compressive residual stresses can be induced by local heat treating of the surface. These residual stresses can counteract potential crack initiation on the surface or in the subsurface regions. In the present study, the adjustability of the residual stress state is investigated using a workpiece manufactured by orbital cold‐forming, which possesses an accumulation of material in its edge region. Based on residual stress measurements in the workpiece's edge region using x‐ray diffractometry, it is possible to verify the compressive residual stresses adjusted by varying the cooling conditions.     

Computer Aided Product Optimization of High‐Pressure Sheet Metal Formed Tailor Rolled Blanks

In view of today's increasing economic pressure the industry has to rationalize in order to remain internationally competitive. Achieving higher product quality using less material and machine‐man‐hours is one possibility to reach this goal. The high‐pressure sheet metal forming of tailor rolled blanks (TRB) allows to produce optimized components specially developed for their future function and which cannot be made from conventionally rolled sheet metal. This paper aims at showing that the two processes, i. e. flexible rolling and high‐pressure sheet metal forming (HPSMF), can be well represented in finite element simulations. By linking the finite element models with a combinatory optimizing tool, it is possible to simulate and optimize the entire process chain. Two example components were used to illustrate the principle of the optimization.     

流动温压制备不锈钢十字件的试验研究

流动温压成形技术是在传统温压成形工艺的基础上,结合粉末注射成形工艺的优点而发展起来的一种制备粉末冶金复杂件的新型近终形成形技术。用常规的17-4P不锈钢粉,利用流动温压制备出十字形试样,并对脱脂工艺和烧结试样的成形工艺、显微结构、密度、硬度等进行了分析。结果表明,通过流动温压成形技术,可以制备出高性能和低成本的结构复杂件。     

A New Forming Strategy to Realise Parts Designed for Deep‐drawing by Incremental CNC Sheet Forming

The work detailed in this paper focuses on a new forming strategy for the CNC incremental sheet forming (ISF) process that is appropriate to form steep flanges, e.g. for parts designed for deep‐drawing. When parts are designed for deep‐drawing, they usually contain steep or rectangular side walls that cannot be manufactured using the standard ISF strategies. Unlike prior approaches to obtain steep flanges through ISF, the present method achieves a rough approximation to the final part already in the preforming stage. This can be accomplished without excessive sheet thinning due to sheet bending and stretching at this stage. As a consequence, additional material can be used for the finishing stages, thus yielding a final part with largely reduced thinning. After basic studies on a simple benchmark problem, the new bending/stretching strategy is tested with an industrially applied part that is usually produced by deep‐drawing. Finally, the ISF workpiece is evaluated against the deep‐drawn component with respect to sheet thickness and geometric accuracy.     

Finite Element Analysis of Flange Spread Behavior in H‐beam Universal Rolling

Flange spread is one of the most important factors in the production of H‐beams with the universal rolling mill. Although some prediction models for flange spread have been proposed, the constants in the model equations should be determined for each product size, which requires much experimental work. In this research, finite element analysis was carried out in various rolling conditions and a technique for deciding the model constants by the analysis was investigated. First, rolling experiments using pure lead were carried out to confirm the correctness of the flange spread model. Finite element analyses were then executed for rolling conditions corresponding to the experiments. The flange spread in the numerical analyses showed very good agreement with the experimental results, confirming the accuracy of the numerical simulation. At the same time, the possibility of determining the model constants by numerical analysis was demonstrated. Other related properties of universal rolling were also investigated with the data from the finite element analysis. Changes in the web and flange thicknesses after exiting the roll gap were quantitatively simulated. The cross‐flow behavior between the web and flange was investigated, and the effect of rolling conditions on the cross‐flow ratio was obtained. This research demonstrates that finite element simulation is a powerful tool for investigating and modeling deformation in H‐beam universal rolling.     

Laser‐Aided Flow Curve Determination in Hydraulic Bulging

Hydraulic bulging can be used to characterise sheet material under biaxial stress conditions. A new measuring method applying laser light section for geometry analysis and a camera device for local strain determination enables a continuous on‐line calculation of flow curves. Effective stress and equivalent strain can be recorded until the failure of the material, thus providing extended information compared to the tensile test. The testing procedure is predestined for simulation purposes and for an application in the quality control sector, allowing for a quick and profound material characterisation. This work presents flow curves, strain hardening curves, and strain paths of several steel grades and one aluminium alloy. Some selected materials were also investigated with regard to different yield criteria and results from the tensile test.     

Development of a Robot‐Based Sheet Metal Forming Process

This paper describes a new sheet metal forming process for the production of sheet components for prototypes and small lot sizes. The generation of the shape is based on kinematics and is implemented by means of a new forming machine consisting of two industrial robots. Compared to conventional sheet metal forming machines, this newly developed forming process offers a high geometrical form flexibility, and comparatively small deformation forces enable high deformation degrees. The principle of the procedure is based on flexible shaping by means of a freely programmable path‐synchronous movement of the two robots. The final shape is produced by the incremental infeed of the forming tool in depth direction and its movement along the contour in lateral direction at each level of the depth direction. The supporting tool with its simple geometry is used to support the sheet metal and follows the forming tool at the rear side of the sheet metal. The sheet metal components manufactured in first attempts are of simple geometry like frustum and frustum of pyramids as well as spherical cups. Among other things the forming results are improved by an adjustment of the movement strategy, a variation of individual process parameters and geometric modifications of the tools. In addition to a measurement of the form deviations of the sheet with a Coordinate Measurement Machine, screened and deformed sheets are used for deformation analyses. Furthermore, the incremental forming process is analysed with assistance of the finite element method. In total the results show that a robot‐based sheet metal forming with kinematic shape generation is possible and leads to acceptable forming results. In order to be able to use the potential of this process, a goal‐oriented process design is as necessary as specific process knowledge. In order to achieve process stability and safety, the essential process parameters and the process boundaries have to be determined.     

Tailored Profiles Made of Tailor Rolled Strips by Roll Forming – Part 2 of 2

The main scope of the presented work is to demonstrate the potential of load optimized tubes with a varying thickness distribution in circumferential direction produced by roll forming. As initial material a so called Tailor Rolled Strip (TRS) sheet metal coil produced by Strip Profile Rolling (SPR) method was used instead of plain sheet. The TRS sheet metal is manufactured in a continuously working process by rolling one or more groves in transverse direction into the sheet metal coil. In this paper, the secondary forming of the TRS sheet metal to TRS tubes is investigated by means of FE‐simulations and roll forming experiments. To simulate the manufacturing process of the TRS tube by FEM, an integrated consideration of the process is necessary because of the large local strain hardening in the groves of the initial SPR sheet metal. In experimental roll forming operations welded tubes could be manufactured successfully. The geometrical and material properties of these tubes are analyzed. The reprocessing of TRS tubes by hydroforming is investigated by means of tube bursting tests. It has been found that an additional annealing process is necessary to achieve deformations in the grooved area during the hydroforming process.     

Multi‐scale Finite Element Cellular Automata Simulation of Multi‐step Cold Forging Operations

The application of new materials to produce forged connecting parts is presented in this work. Particular attention is put on modern bainitic steels due to their increased ductile and strength properties, which influence the behaviour of final products under further exploitation conditions. Bainitic steels do not require a series of thermo‐mechanical operations to obtain these elevated properties, which is one of the advantages of this material. Experimental analysis and numerical simulations of steel behaviour during multi‐step cold forging operations are described in this paper. Since it is one of the possible fracture initiation mechanisms, strain localization development during cold forging is investigated in detail. Conventional constitutive models used in finite element programs have limitations in modeling stochastic and discontinuous phenomena that are responsible for strain localization. The cellular automata model is used as constitutive law in this work to overcome these difficulties and investigate material flow during multi‐stage cold forging operations. Connection of the cellular automata (CA) and finite element (FE) methods creates a so‐called multi‐scale CAFE model. The main aspects of the model are described briefly in this paper. The experimental part of this work supports the numerical investigation. Comparison of the parameters measured and predicted by the CAFE model is presented and discussed as well.     

Blank design optimisation for T-section ring rolling

Abstract

A T-section ring can be considered to consist of two rectangular section rings joined together, which can be described as an outer ring and an inner ring. As this is a complex shape, it is difficult to process a T-section ring by rolling, and a good design of blank is necessary. In this paper, four blank designs and rolling process were studied using finite element analysis. One was a rectangular cross-section, the other three were T-section but with varying flange rim volumes. In the three designs there is a volume flow from the outer ring to the inner ring during rolling, which is disadvantageous to good shape formation. One design had no material flow from outer to inner ring resulting in good ring shape. This had an initial blank design where the volume of metal in each of the two 'part' rings were equal to that of the final ring, respectively.