Modeling of radiation hardening in ferritic/martensitic steel using multi-scale approach

Fe-Cr based ferritic/martensitic (FM) steels are the candidate structural materials for future fusion reactors. In this work, a multi-scale approach comprising atomistic and dislocation dynamic simulations are used to understand the hardening of these materials due to irradiation. At the atomic scale, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to study the mobility of an edge dislocation and its interaction with irradiation induced voids and bubbles. The dislocation dynamics (DD) simulations are used to estimate the change in flow stress of the material as a result of irradiation hardening. The key input to the DD simulations are the friction stress and maximum shear stress for the edge dislocation to overcome the defects as determined from atomistic simulations. The results obtained from the MD and DD simulations are in qualitative agreement with experimental results of hardening behavior of irradiated FM steels.     

A promising new class of irradiation tolerant materials: Ti2ZrHfV0.5Mo0.2 high-entropy alloy

Recently, high-entropy alloys (HEAs) or multi-principal-element alloys with unprecedented physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, have been considered as candidate materials used in advanced reactors due to their promising irradiation resistant behavior. Here, we report a new single-phase body-centered cubic (BCC) structured Ti₂ZrHfV_0.5Mo_0.2 HEA possessing excellent irradiation resistance, i.e., scarcely irradiation hardening and abnormal lattice constant reduction after helium-ion irradiation, which is completely different from conventional alloys. This is the first time to report the abnormal XRD phenomenon of metallic alloys and almost no hardening after irradiation. These excellent properties make it to be a potential candidate material used as core components in next-generation nuclear reactors. The particular irradiation tolerance derives from high density lattice vacancies/defects.     

A review on neutron-irradiation-induced hardening of metallic components

Neutron irradiation alters the mechanical properties of metallic parts, which are exposed to service temperatures below 40% of their homologous temperature. These working conditions affect most of the components of fission nuclear reactors, making these parts susceptible during service to hardening, loss of ductility, localised plastic deformation and plastic instability. Additionally, there has been a continuous historical increase in the efficiency and service life of nuclear reactors, leading to more severe irradiation exposure during service. In this sense, understanding the mechanisms for the formation and evolution of irradiation-induced defects and their interaction with gliding dislocations is vital for the estimation of the service life of these components and the development of new radiation-resistant materials via alloy and microstructural design. The present paper reviews the use of atomic-scale modelling to simulate the generation and evolution of irradiation-induced defects. Additionally, the interaction between these defects and the gliding dislocations is revised in accordance with the continuum theory and atomic-scale modelling. Finally, the limitations and challenges facing the atomic-scale modelling of radiation damage and defect/dislocation interaction are briefly discussed.     

Irradiation behaviors of two novel single-phase bcc-structure high-entropy alloys for accident-tolerant fuel cladding

High-entropy alloys(HEAs)are potential alternative materials for accident-tolerant fuel cladding due to their excellent irradiation resistance and high-temperature corrosion resistance.In this work,two novel body-centered cubic(bcc)structured Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 and Mo0.5NbTiV0.5Zr0.25 HEAs were fab-ricated.Helium-ion irradiation was performed on the two HEAs to simulate neutron irradiation,and the crystal structure,hardness,and microstructure evolution were investigated.The crystal structure of the Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 HEA remained stable at low fluences,while amorphization may occur at high fluences in the two HEAs.The irradiation hardening value of the Mo0.5NbTiVCr0.25 was 0.77 GPa at flu-ences of 1×1017 ions/cm2 and 1.49 GPa at fluences of 5×1017 ions/cm2,while the hardening value of the Mo0.5NbTiV0.5Zr0.25 was 1.36 GPa at ion fluences of 5×1017 ions/cm2.In comparison with most of the conventional alloys,the two HEAs showed slight irradiation hardening.The helium bubbles and dislocation loops with small size were observed in the two HEAs after irradiation.This is the first time to report the formation of a dislocation loop in bcc-structure HEAs after irradiation.However,voids and precipitates were not observed in the two HEAs which could be ascribed to the high lattice distortion and compositional complexity of HEAs.This research revealed that the two HEAs show outstanding irradiation resistance,which may be promising accident-tolerant fuel cladding materials.     

On dislocation-based artificial neural network modeling of flow stress

Computational design of materials processes has received great interests during the past few decades. Successful designs require accurate assessment of material properties, which can be influenced by the internal microstructure of materials. This work aim to develop a novel computational model based on dislocation structures to predict the flow stress properties of metallic materials. To create sufficient training data for the model, the flow stress of a precipitation–hardening aluminum alloy was measured by characterizing the dislocation structure of specimens from interrupted mechanical tests using a high resolution electron backscatter diffraction technique. The density of geometrically necessary dislocations was calculated based on analysis of the local lattice curvature evolution in the crystalline lattice. For three essential features of dislocation microstructures – substructure cell size, cell wall thickness, and density of geometrically necessary dislocations – statistical parameters of their distributions were used as the input variables of the predictive model. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was used to back-calculate the in situ non-linear material parameters for different dislocation microstructures. The model was able to accurately predict the flow stress of aluminum alloy 6022 as a function of its dislocation structure content. In addition, a sensitivity analysis was performed to establish the relative contribution of individual dislocation parameters in predicting the flow stress. The success of this approach motivates further use of ANNs and related methods to calibrate and predict inelastic material properties that are often too cumbersome to model with rigorous dislocation-based plasticity models.     

Microstructural evolution of a silicon carbide-carbon coated nanostructured ferritic alloy composite during in-situ Kr ion irradiation at 300℃ 450℃

This work focuses on irradiation behaviors of a novel silicon carbide and carbon coated nanostructured ferritic alloy (SiC-C@NFA) composite for potential applications as a cladding and structural material for next generation nuclear reactors.The SiC-C@NFA samples were irradiated with 1 MeV Kr ions up to 10 dpa at 300 and 450 ℃.Microstructures and defect evolution were studied in-situ at the IVEM-Tandem facility at Argonne National Laboratory.The effects of ion irradiation on various phases such as α-ferrite matrix,(Fe,Cr)7C3,and (Ti,W)C precipitates were evaluated.The α-ferrite matrix showed a continuous increase in dislocation density along with spatial ordering of dislocation loops (or loop strings) at ＞5 dpa.The size of the dislocation loops at 450 ℃ was larger than that at 300 ℃.The nucleation and growth of new (Ti,W)C precipitates in α-ferrite grains were enhanced with the ion dose at 450 ℃.This study provides new insight into the irradiation resistance of the SiC-C@NFA system.     

Fatigue life predictions for irradiated stainless steels considering void swellings effects

The objective of this study is to estimate fatigue life of irradiated austenitic stainless steels types 304, 304L, and 316, which are extensively used as structural alloys in the internal elements of nuclear reactors. These reactor components are typically subjected to a long-term exposure to irradiation at elevated temperature along with repeated loadings during operation. Additionally, it is known that neutron irradiation can cause the formation and growth of microscopic defects or swellings in the materials, which may have a potential to deteriorate the mechanical properties of the materials. In this study, uniaxial fatigue models were used to predict fatigue properties based only on simple monotonic properties including ultimate tensile strength and Brinell hardness. Two existing models, the Bäumel–Seeger uniform material law and the Roessle–Fatemi hardness method, were employed and extended to include the effects of test temperature, neutron irradiation fluence, irradiation-induced helium and irradiation-induced swellings on fatigue life of austenitic stainless steels. The proposed models provided reasonable fatigue life predictions compared with the experimental data for all selected materials.     

Effect of crystallographic texture on precipitation induced anisotropy in an aluminium magnesium silicon alloy

The effect of crystallographic texture on precipitation induced anisotropy in yield strength of an aluminium magnesium silicon alloy was investigated. Solutionized samples were subjected to unidirectional and multi-step cross rolling to yield distinct crystallographic textures in the Al–Mg–Si alloy. The rolled sheets were then subjected to annealing followed by second solutionizing treatment to provide sheets with similar grain size and dislocation content but distinct texture. Ageing experiments were carried out on these sheets at 443 K for different time intervals. It was observed that the evolution of anisotropy in yield strength of the age hardened alloy depends on texture. The difference in age hardening response brought about by varying initial texture controls the evolution of anisotropy in mechanical properties of the alloy. This was manifested in terms of transition from anisotropic to isotropic mechanical properties in the unidirectionally rolled samples after peak ageing. On the contrary, a transition from isotropic to anisotropic yield behaviour was observed for multi-step cross rolled samples. This is attributed to enhanced precipitation hardening in crystallographically softer orientations compared to crystallographically harder orientations.     

Multiscale modeling of back-stress evolution in equal-channel angular pressing: from one pass to multiple passes

Fine-grained materials produced by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) exhibit kinematic hardening due to the existence of a back-stress. This article presents a new dislocation-based model, which is able to describe the tension/compression asymmetry of the ECAP processed commercial purity aluminum. By introducing strain relaxation, and relating the back-stress to the inhomogeneous dislocation density distribution in cell walls and in cell interiors, the model can accurately predict the evolution of the dislocation densities, the cell size, and the back-stress. Compared to the other back-stress models, it takes into account the microstructure evolution and gives a better prediction.     

挤压态6013-T4铝合金在动态冲击载荷下的变形行为及其微观机理

使用霍普金森压杆试验装置进行挤压态6013-T4铝合金的室温动态压缩实验,应变速率为1×10³~3×10³ s^-1。结果表明,6013-T4铝合金在动态压缩过程中表现出明显的应变硬化和正应变速率敏感性;随着应变和应变速率的提高位错密度增大,在高应变速率和大应变量变形后试样的位错塞积显著。在相同的变形条件下0°方向试样的应力总是最高,而45°方向试样的应力最低。挤压态6013-T4合金的主要织构类型为{112}<111>和{110}<111>。对于{112}<111>织构,0°、45°和90°方向的最大施密特因子分别为0.27、0.49和0.41。对于{110}<111>织构,最大施密特因子分别为0.27、0.43和0.41。0°方向的施密特因子最小,使该方向的应力水平较高。在相同的应变速率和应变量条件下动态压缩变形时,0°方向试样的位错密度更高。在冲击件的材料选择和结构设计中有必要考虑材料的应变速率敏感性、力学性能各向异性以及微观组织的演变。     

Modelling of strain hardening and microstructural evolution in equal channel angular extrusion

Strain hardening as well as crystallographic texture development is studied in polycrystalline OFHC Cu subjected to equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) up to four passes. The experiments have been carried out at room temperature in a 90° die, following Route A processing. Texture development was followed using pole figures and hardening was measured by Vickers hardness testing. The self-consistent viscoplastic polycrystal plasticity model in its isotropic version [Acta Met. Mater. 42 (1994) 2453] was used for modelling the evolution of the texture. A previously proposed strain-hardening model [J. Eng. Mater. Techn. 124 (2002) 71], based on the dislocation cell structure of the material, was incorporated into the polycrystal model to predict the hardening behaviour. For the passage of the material in the ECAE die, the recently proposed flow line model was employed [Adv. Eng. Mater. 5 (2003) 308]. The experimental textures as well as the hardening curves are qualitatively reproduced by this modelling and an important effect of the varying strain rate within the ECAE die on hardening has been found.     

Effect of Transverse Grain Boundary on Microstructure,Texture and Mechanical Properties of Drawn Copper Wires

In the present study, microstructure and texture of drawn copper wires with a large number of transverse grain boundaries have been characterized and their mechanical properties have been analyzed. The results show that the texture evolution is accelerated by transverse grain boundary and the saturation value 60% of volume fraction of 〈111〉 fiber texture component is reached rapidly with increasing strain. For the microstructure of drawn wires with a large number of transverse grain boundaries, the critical strain, where lamellar boundaries form, is less than that for wires with equiaxed grains or columnar grains （all grain boundaries parallel to axis direction）. Since transverse grain boundary accelerates grain subdivision and dislocation density increases rapidly in drawn wires with a large number of transverse grain boundaries, there are a higher flow stress and a higher work hardening rate.     

Effect of aging on work hardening behaviour of cold rolled Nimonic C-263 alloy

Abstract

Experimental true stress–true strain data of Nimonic C-263 alloy in solution treated as well as aged condition have been analysed using different flow relationships. Ludwigson relationship provides the best fit of the data for all the conditions investigated. The transition in macroscopic flow behaviour of the alloy with plastic strain, in solution treated condition, can be correlated with the transition in deformation mode from low strain regime to high strain regime. Although aging does not appear to alter the macroscopic flow behaviour, it causes a considerable change in flow parameters of the Ludwigson relationship and substructural evolution. On the other hand, the effect of sheet thickness is marginal. The flow data of the aged alloys fitted according to Ludwigson model not only yield a unique set of flow parameters for each aging condition but also exhibit a systematic trend with aging time. The transition in macroscopic flow behaviour of the alloy with strain, in aged conditions, can be correlated with a change in dislocation mechanism from dislocation–precipitate interaction at lower strains to dislocation–dislocation interaction at higher strains leading to formation of a dense dislocation tangled networks in the matrix regions surrounding the precipitates. The alloy in both solution treated and aged conditions exhibits three fairly distinct stages of strain hardening. The strain hardening rate decreases in regime I, remains constant in regime II and begins to fall again in regime III. Furthermore, it is observed that the alloy specimen with longitudinal orientation (L, i.e. parallel to rolling direction), exhibits marginally highest strain hardening rates, while specimens with long transverse orientation exhibit lowest strain hardening rates both in solution treated and aged conditions. However, for all other in-plane orientations (i.e. L+30°, L+45° and L+60°), the strain hardening rate data are fairly very close and lie in between those of longitudinal and long transverse orientations.     

Numerical aspects of non-local modeling of the damage evolution in elastic–plastic materials

The design of mechanical systems in modern industrial plants requires reliable and efficient methods to predict the behavior of structural materials. For complex loading conditions, the behavior of the structural materials is determined by damage evolution, strain rate and temperature. The subject of the article is the modeling of the damage evolution in elastic–plastic materials of structural components, which are utilized at various temperatures. To achieve this goal, a hybrid model of steel cracking is applied. The hybrid model uses a finite element simulation combined with an experimental test realized in the macroscale. By using the hybrid model, the modeling of the damage evolution affords possibilities of determining macroscopic effects of the steel micro-defects. An essence of solving the predicting behavior of structural materials with micro-defects consists in time integration procedures for constitutive equations. In the article a semi-implicit time integration procedure is presented. The semi-implicit time integration procedure is suitable for the inelastic materials (compressible or incompressible) with the combined kinematic–isotropic hardening behavior. Its numerical solutions are stable, namely without the oscillatory behavior. By spatial averaging over a representative volume (RV), the homogenization technique (HT) is used for the defining of non-local variables in the constitutive equations. Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) based on local selections are applied to perform the homogenization technique. Within the framework of the large strain theory, the non-local continuum satisfies the objectivity requirements. Limitations on applicability of the -integral approach to construct crack growth resistance curves are also presented.     

Transmission and scanning electron microscope study on the secondary cyclic hardening behavior of interstitial-free steel

Strain controlled fatigue experiment was employed to evaluate automotive grade interstitial-free ferrite steel. Hundreds of grains were examined by scanning electron microscope under electron channeling contrast image technique of backscattered electron image mode for comprehensive comparison of micrographs with those taken under transmission electron microscope. The cyclic stress responses clearly revealed that rapid hardening occurs at the early stage of cycling as a result of multiplication of dislocations to develop loop patches, dipolar walls and dislocation cells at various total strain amplitudes. After primary rapid hardening, stress responses varied from being saturated to further hardening according to dislocation structure evolution at various strain amplitudes. The fatigue failure was always accompanied with further hardening including secondary hardening. The corresponding dislocation structures with the three types of hardening behaviors are discussed. Once the secondary hardening starts, dislocation cells began to develop along grain boundaries in the low strain region and then extended into grain interiors as strain amplitudes increased and cycling went on. The secondary hardening rates were found to be directly proportional to their strain amplitudes.     

Using lifetime of point defects for dislocation bias in bcc Fe

The interaction between dislocations and point defects is key to deformation processes and microstructural evolution of structural materials. In this work, we compute the lifetime of point defects to describe their interaction with dislocations. This approach can accurately account for the effects of the dislocation core and anisotropic defect dynamics to accumulatively determine the capture efficiency, sink strength, and dislocation bias at different temperatures and dislocation densities. Particularly, the absorption of point defects by straight screw and edge dislocations in a model bcc iron system is studied. The maximum swelling rates based on the obtained bias factors are in close agreement with a variety of experimental measurements, including both neutron and ion-irradiation data, especially when considering the survival fraction for point defects from displacement cascades. This approach applies to many other processes and sinks, such as dislocation loops and interfaces, providing a powerful means to develop fundamental insights critical for improving radiation resistance and mechanical properties of structural materials through controlling defect interaction and evolution.     

Influence of crystallographic textures on tensile properties of 316L austenitic stainless steel

Role of cold rolling texture on the tensile properties of the cold rolled and cold rolled and annealed AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel is described here. The solution-annealed stainless steel plates were unidirectionally cold rolled to 50, 70 and 90% of reduction in thickness. The cold rolled material was annealed at 500–900 °C annealing temperatures. X-ray diffraction technique was employed to study the texture evolution in cold rolled as well as cold rolled and annealed conditions. The texture components that evolved were translated into slip transmission number ‘λ’ and Schmid factor ‘μ’. These two parameters were correlated with the tensile properties of the material. The tensile properties were evaluated under all processing conditions. Softening of the cold rolled material was observed after annealing with increasing annealing temperatures. From the stress–strain curves, strain hardening coefficient ‘n’ and strain hardening rate ‘θ’ were determined. It was found that the effect of texture on tensile behaviour could be understood clearly by strain hardening rate. Out of the two parameters, ‘n’ and ‘θ’, strain hardening rate was found to be more sensitive to type of texture in the material.     

Fatigue behavior and dislocation substructures for 6063 aluminum alloy under nonproportional loadings

In this paper, the fatigue behavior and dislocation substructures of 6063 aluminum alloy were studied under several nonproportional path loadings, which were circle, ellipse, rectangle and square paths. After fatigue test the micro-structure especially the dislocation substructures of the failure materials was carefully observed with the transmission electron microscope (TEM) method. Under the same 93 MPa equivalent stress amplitude loading, the alloy has the shortest life and the most severe cyclic additional hardening with circle path loading among all the loading paths. This attributes to the complicated dislocation substructures and severe stress concentration of the alloy during the cycling process. While under the ellipse path loading, the alloy has a comparably long life and light cyclic additional hardening. The deformation of the alloy and the morphology of the dislocation substructures determine the fatigue behavior of 6063 alloy under the same equivalent stress amplitude loading. Under the circle path loading, the fatigue life decreases while the cyclic strain increases as the loading stress amplitude increases from 47 MPa to 163 MPa. The dislocation evolution of 6063 alloy during the cycling process under circle path loading was examined with TEM. It was found that the dislocation merges with each other and changes from single lines to crossed bands. The movability of dislocation reduces and the stress concentration degree rises during the cycling process.     

Large load friction stir welding of Mg–6Al–0.4Mn–2Ca magnesium alloy

Friction stir welded (FSW) magnesium alloys usually exhibit a lower yield strength and elongation compared with base materials. In this study, large load FSW associated with an extremely low welding speed and rotation rate were applied to a non-combustive Mg–6Al–0.4Mn–2Ca magnesium alloy to modify the microstructure and texture in the weld zone and improve the mechanical properties of the joint. The twin structure in the stir zone provided adequate barriers for dislocation motion for strengthening and created more local sites for nucleating and accommodating dislocations, thereby elevating ductility and strain hardening in the transverse tensile test. The results showed that the yield strength and elongation of the joint were enhanced to 98% and 126% of the base material levels, respectively.