椭球形与球形下封头压力容器内熔融物滞留传热特性分析

严重事故下堆芯熔融物再分布于压力容器下封头，在衰变热作用下高温堆芯熔融物对压力容器壁面施加较大的热负荷，可能导致压力容器失效。针对压力容器内熔融物滞留下的传热过程，基于Fortran90语言开发了椭球形下封头压力容器内熔融物堆内滞留（IVR）分析程序IVRASA-ELLIP，计算具有椭球形下封头的压力容器在严重事故下稳态熔池的传热过程及IVR特性。利用IVRASA-ELLIP程序计算了VVER-1000压力容器内熔池的传热，分析具有椭球形下封头的压力容器各处的壁面热流密度、氧化物硬壳厚度和压力容器壁厚，并与运用IVRASA程序计算的AP1000稳态熔池传热结果进行对比分析。研究结果表明，在相同初始参数下椭球形下封头内的壁面热流密度较球形下封头内的小，与热流密度的变化趋势相对应，椭球形下封头内压力容器壁的消融量较球形下封头内的小，椭球形下封头内形成的氧化物硬壳厚度较球形下封头内的厚。     

堆芯熔融物在下腔室内冷却模型研究及缓解集热效应的对策

从能最守恒方程出发,选取较为现实的实验公式和经验公式,建立了一个完整的堆芯熔融物在下腔室内冷却的计算模型.为了验证本模型的合理性,以AP600和AP1000反应堆为例进行了计算分析,并将计算结果与文献例题进行了比较.重点分析了堆芯熔融物单位体积释热量以及集热效应对堆芯熔融物冷却的影响.针对集热效应,提出了将压力容器下封头的半球形状改为旋转抛物线形状的对策.结果表明,下封头形状的改变能显著改变堆芯熔融物的热流密度分布,缓解集热效应.     

压力容器下腔室熔池结构计算方法研究

根据堆芯熔融物向下封头迁移的不同路径,给出压力容器下腔室内熔池结构的计算方法,并用MASCA实验结果对该方法进行验证。以百万千瓦级核电厂为对象计算全厂断电(SBO)事故工况下的熔池结构,结果表明,熔融物从侧面迁移到下封头,最终形成的熔池结构为3层。本方法可为熔融物堆内滞留条件下压力容器下封头的完整性判断提供条件。     

反应堆压力容器外水冷条件下贯穿件完整性分析

严重事敝下堆芯熔融物坍塌到反应堆压力容器(RPV)下封头时,可能造成贯穿件因高温熔融物热侵袭而失效,使压力容器丧失完整性,熔融物进入到反应堆堆腔中,导致熔融物堆内滞留(IVR)失效.在分析贯穿件脱落和熔融物流入贯穿件两种失效模式基础上,分别运用VTA程序和修正的整体凝固模型(MBF)计算贯穿件焊缝的熔化程度、热膨胀产生的摩擦力,估算贯穿件内熔融物流动的距离.结果表明,在成功实施反应堆压力容器外水冷(EVVC)措施条件下,300 MW压水堆核电厂压力容器的下封头不会因贯穿件失效而丧失完整性,堆芯熔融物小能通过贯穿件失效向堆腔迁移.     

示范快堆堆芯熔融物收集装置的安全分析

针对示范快堆堆芯熔融物收集装置的高温结构完整性问题，采用堆芯熔融物滞留在反应堆压力容器策略有效性评估方法（IVR-DOE10460），建立了316H本构模型、多轴修正以及具体的分析评价方法。通过搜集与分析ASME规范和R66材料数据手册中316H钢相关的材料数据，确定了输入数据。在此基础上，利用有限元分析软件ABAQUS开展堆芯熔融物堆积形态下堆芯熔融物收集装置的应力应变分析，并基于时间分数法与延性耗竭法（应变分数法）对堆芯熔融物收集装置进行蠕变强度校核。有限元分析结果表明：堆芯熔融物收集装置在设计时间内可满足时间分数和应变分数小于1的蠕变强度考核要求，且满足竖直位移小于设计指标的功能性要求。堆芯熔融物收集装置在堆芯熔化严重事故后能保持结构的完整性。     

基于ASTEC程序的反应堆严重事故下压力容器下封头传热分析

反应堆压力容器内熔融物滞留是先进反应堆设计严重事故缓解措施中的重要选项之一，在维持反应堆压力容器的完整性，包容堆芯熔融物方面具有重要作用。确保熔融物滞留有效性的关键是保证下封头内壁热负荷不超过下封头外壁面换热能力，而且在整个过程中不发生结构失效，即下封头剩余壁厚能够实现熔融物的承载。应用ASTEC程序，基于大型先进压水堆的设计，针对反应堆压力容器内熔融物滞留系统运行过程中冷却剂热工参数、下封头外壁面临界热流密度和最终下封头厚度进行计算分析，通过研究熔池对下封头的熔蚀和剩余厚度，判断下封头残留厚度对于熔融物的包容，评估系统的有效性。结果表明：在下封头较上部位置的部分区域内，换热较为剧烈，其中热流密度最大值出现在熔融物分两层的交界处，事故过程中下封头内壁将被熔融物金属层熔化，剩余厚度满足包容要求，但是最终剩余厚度十分有限。     

钠冷快堆堆芯熔融物射流碎裂特性理论研究

在钠冷快堆严重事故下,堆芯熔融物可能掉入冷却剂中并与液态金属钠相互作用,导致熔融物的碎裂及凝固,并在堆芯捕集器或下封头内重定位形成堆芯碎片床。熔融物的射流碎裂特性直接关乎堆芯碎片床的冷却及再临界行为。本文基于线性稳定性理论、运动学方程和交界面修正拉普拉斯定律,推导出考虑沸腾和凝固效应的熔融物射流表面不稳定性增长方程,建立了液态金属钠中熔融物射流碎裂模型,并提出了典型环境中熔融物射流碎裂准则。随后使用熔融物射流碎裂模型对COSA实验结果进行了对比分析。本研究结果将为钠冷快堆严重事故的评估论证提供可靠工具,对严重事故缓解措施的设计也具有重要的指导意义和参考价值。     

堆芯熔化严重事故下反应堆压力容器下封头高温蠕变分析

核电厂在发生堆芯熔化严重事故时，采用堆内熔融物滞留（IVR）策略将熔融物包容在反应堆压力容器（RPV）内是一项重要缓解措施。在IVR策略期间，RPV下封头在熔融物的极高温度载荷和力学载荷的共同作用下很有可能因过度蠕变变形而失效。因此，有必要对熔融物滞留条件下RPV下封头进行蠕变变形分析，以保证RPV结构完整性。该文在假定IVR条件下，采用有限元方法对RPV下封头进行热-结构耦合分析，通过计算得到容器壁的温度场和应力场，以及下封头的塑性和蠕变变形，并结合塑性和蠕变断裂判据对下封头进行失效分析。结果表明，考虑蠕变影响后，结构的变形将大大增加；严重事故下采取熔融物滞留策略期间，RPV下封头的主要失效模式为蠕变失效而非塑性失效；内压对蠕变变形量和蠕变失效时间有较大影响。该文为严重事故下RPV下封头的蠕变和失效研究提供了分析方法。      

压力容器下封头大变形模型的开发及在FOREVER实验中的应用分析

反应堆发生严重事故后，将堆芯熔融物滞留在压力容器内的策略（In-vessel Retention,IVR）是作为缓解严重事故的一项重要措施，该策略已成功应用于AP1000、华龙一号和CAP1400等先进压水堆的严重事故管理中。在实施IVR策略时，下封头受到高温熔融物的热负荷会发生变形，下封头的变形改变堆腔的冷却流道，这会直接影响压力容器外部冷却的排热能力和IVR策略的成功实施，有必要对下封头变形展开研究和应用。针对ISAA(Integrated Severe Accident Analysis)程序LHTCM(Lower Head Thermal Creep Module)模型简化薄膜应力模型十分简单和缺乏计算变形模块的问题，本文从机理出发，基于Timoshenko板壳理论、Nortron蠕变定律和大变形塑性理论开发了机理模型—下封头大变形模型，并将该模型集成到一体化严重事故分析程序ISAA中对FOREVER-EC2实验进行应用，预测失效时间与实验的误差仅为1.9%，预测底部伸长量与实验测量值较为符合，破口位置与实验一致。分析结果表明该模型能准确预测在堆芯熔化严重事故中下封头所受应力、...     

示范快堆堆芯熔融物收集装置的安全分析

针对示范快堆堆芯熔融物收集装置的高温结构完整性问题,采用堆芯熔融物滞留在反应堆压力容器策略有效性评估方法(IVR-DOE10460),建立了316H本构模型、多轴修正以及具体的分析评价方法。通过搜集与分析ASME规范和R66材料数据手册中316H钢相关的材料数据,确定了输入数据。在此基础上,利用有限元分析软件ABAQUS开展堆芯熔融物堆积形态下堆芯熔融物收集装置的应力应变分析,并基于时间分数法与延性耗竭法(应变分数法)对堆芯熔融物收集装置进行蠕变强度校核。有限元分析结果表明:堆芯熔融物收集装置在设计时间内可满足时间分数和应变分数小于1的蠕变强度考核要求,且满足竖直位移小于设计指标的功能性要求。堆芯熔融物收集装置在堆芯熔化严重事故后能保持结构的完整性。     

基于OpenFOAM的熔融池自然对流传热与凝固数值研究

熔融物堆内滞留是第3代核电技术重要的严重事故缓解措施之一,堆芯熔融池在压力容器下封头壁面的热流密度分布直接影响该策略的有效性。本文基于开源的数值计算流体力学软件平台OpenFOAM,应用相变模型和浮升力模型二次开发了用于模拟堆芯熔融物由内热源或温差驱动的自然对流传热与相变求解器。应用该求解器模拟了瑞典皇家理工学院开展的二维氧化池与金属层耦合传热试验,获得了氧化池和金属层硬壳的相场,以及熔融池内的温度分布及沿容器壁面的热流密度分布。计算结果表明,该模型可用于熔融物凝固与自然对流的模拟,为深入分析核电厂采用熔融物堆内滞留措施后熔融池的行为奠定了基础。     

Development and verification of molten corium–concrete interaction code

During a severe accident of Pressurized Water Reactor(PWR), the core materials was heated, melt located on the lower head of Reactor Pressure Vessel(RPV). With the temperature rise, the corium will melt through the lower head and discharge into the reactor cavity. Those corium will interact with the concrete and damage the integrity of the containment, so some coolability method should used to quench the corium. In order to investigate the progress of MCCI, a MCCI analysis code, that is MOCO, was developed. The MOCO includes the heat transfer behavior in axial and radial directions from the molten corium to the basemat and sidewall concrete, crust generation and growth, and coolability mechanisms reveal the concrete erosion and gas release, which are important for the interaction process. Cavity ablation depth, melt temperature, and gas release are the key parameters in the interaction research. The physical-chemistry reaction is also involved in MOCO code. In the present paper, the related MCCI experiment data were used to verify the models of the MOCO and the calculation results of MOCO were also compared with other MCCI analysis codes.     

Thermodynamic Analysis for Molten Corium Stratification Test MASCA with Ionic Liquid U-Zr-Fe-O-B-C-FPs Database

The molten corium stratification tested in the OECD MASCA project was analyzed with our thermodynamic database and the database was verified to be effective for the stratification analysis. The MASCA test shows that the molten corium can be stratified with the metal layer under the oxide when sub-oxidized corium including iron was retained in the lower head of the reactor vessel. This stratification is caused by the increased density of the metal layer attributed to a transfer of uranium metal that was reduced from uranium oxide by zirconium. Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations with the database, which was developed for the corium U-Zr-Fe-O-B-C-FPs system using the ionic two-sublattice model for liquid, show quantitative agreements with the MASCA test, such as the composition of each layer, fission product (FP) partitioning between the layers and B₄C effect on the stratification.     

ASTEC程序中反应堆熔池结构对压力容器下封头换热计算的影响

反应堆严重事故工况下堆内环境复杂,针对下腔室内熔融物行为的试验非常有限,因此通常采用假设的熔池结构模型进行事故评价。本文使用ASTEC程序中的3种熔池结构模型,评价典型严重事故工况下不同熔池结构对下封头内壁换热及压力容器完整性的影响。计算结果表明:在外壁绝热且下封头失效仅使用温度限值的条件下,两层熔池结构导致下封头失效时间最短,且由于顶部金属层集热效应,失效位置位于熔池上部;三层熔池结构由于底层金属层的出现,使下封头下部温度持续升高而发生失效,但其失效时间长于两层熔池结构的情况。     

Analysis of B4C Influences on Thermodynamic Properties and Phase Separation of Molten Corium with Ionic Liquid U-Zr-Fe-O-B-C-FPs Database

Boron carbide influences on thermodynamic properties and phase separation of molten corium such as liquidus temperature were estimated with our U-Zr-Fe-O-B-C-FPs thermodynamic database. The liquidus temperature of the oxide for the typical corium was estimated to increase by a hundred degrees with B₄C addition when the corium included up to 10 wt% Fe. On the other hand, the liquidus temperature was hardly changed when the corium included 50wt% Fe. The interaction temperature between the steel and the corium with B₄C was estimated at 1130K. We define the interaction temperature as the lowest temperature where the solid Fe and the liquid phase of a corium are in equilibrium, at which interactions such as microstructure change of the vessel were observed in test studies. Although it is 180K lower than that without B₄C, the estimated temperature is still over 200K higher than the criterion temperature where the vessel loses its structural strength, which has been used in the feasibility evaluation of the in-vessel retention. Other thermodynamic influences of B₄C were also estimated as not having a negative impact on the in-vessel retention.     

Development of Thermodynamic Database for U—Zr—Fe—O—B—C—FPs System

A thermodynamic corium database using ionic two-sublattice model for liquid was developed and stratification of molten corium, supposed to occur in in-vessel retention accident management, was analyzed. The database consists of U—Zr—Fe—O—C—B–(FP oxides) system. Fundamentally, data were obtained from existing assessed databases, such as SGTE's. The liquid phase data were reconstructed based on the ionic model and lacking data including excess energies were assessed to be consistent with existing phase diagrams. Liquidus temperatures measured under OECD RASPLAV project were analyzed with the database. In addition, an analysis of corium under a severe accident condition was carried out and demonstrates that the database gives an improved method based on thermodynamics to analyze the corium stratification.     

Simulant melt experiments on performance of the in-vessel core catcher

In order to enhance the feasibility of in-vessel retention (IVR) of molten core material during a severe accident for high-power reactors, an in-vessel core catcher (IVCC) was designed and evaluated as part of a joint United States-Korean International Nuclear Energy Research Initiative (INERI). The proposed IVCC is expected to increase the thermal margin for success of IVR by providing an “engineered gap” for heat transfer from materials that relocate during a severe accident and potentially serving as a sacrificial material under a severe accident. In this study, LAVA-GAP experiments were performed to investigate the thermal and mechanical performance of the IVCC using the alumina melt as simulant. The LAVA-GAP experiments aim to examine the feasibility and sustainability of the IVCC under the various test conditions using 1/8th scale hemispherical test sections. As a feasibility test of the proposed IVCC in this INERI project, the effects of IVCC base steel materials, internal coating materials, and gap size between the IVCC and the vessel lower head were examined. The test results indicated that the internally coated IVCC has high thermal performance compared with the uncoated IVCC. In terms of integrity of the base steel, carbon steel is superior to stainless steel and the effect of bond coat is found to be trivial for the tests performed in this study. The thermal load is mitigated via boiling heat removal in the gap between the IVCC and the vessel lower head. The current test results imply that gaps less than 10 mm are not enough to guarantee effective cooling induced by water ingression and steam venting there through. Selection of endurable material and pertinent gap size is needed to implement the proposed IVCC concept into advanced reactor designs.     

Analytical model for CHF in narrows gaps on plates and in hemispherical geometries

This study deals with CHF in narrow gaps and the purpose is to propose a predictive model for the CHF, taking into account the effect of geometry and pressure. The modelling is based on a limitation by flooding of the flow entering the gap (CCFL for counter-current flow limitation). A model has been derived for both vertical plate and hemispherical geometry. The formulation proposed by Kutateladze (Eqs. (12) and (17) with a = 1 and b ∼ 1.7) provides best-fit results for both vertical channels and hemispherical geometry. The comparison with the results obtained by Köhler et al. [Köhler, W., Schmidt, H., Herbst, O., Krätzer, W., 1998. Thermohydraulische Untersuchungen zur Debris/Wand-Wechselwirkung (DEBRIS), Abschlussbericht Project No. 150 1017, November; Köhler, W., Schmidt, H., Herbst, O., Krätzer, W., 1998. Experiments on heat removal in a gap between debris crust and RPV wall. In: OECD/CSNI Workshop on In-Vessel Core Debris Retention and Coolability, Garching, Germany, March 3–6, also in First European-Japanese Two-Phase Flow Group Meeting, 36th European Two-Phase Flow Group Meeting, Portoroz 1–5 June, and Seventh Conference on Nuclear Engineering Tokyo, Japan, April 19–23, 2000 ICONE 7012.] seems to indicate that the validity of models based on CCFL controlled CHF is limited to gaps of less than 3–5 mm. Beyond this gap size, mechanisms other than CCFL might control the CHF. However, the experimental results are too scarce and affected by too large uncertainties to validate a theoretical model. Experimental uncertainties are mainly linked to the positioning of the structure (evolution of the gap with the temperature) and to the criteria that are applied to detect the CHF. The conclusion of applications to reactor situations at reduced pressure is that the corium mass that might be coolable through a gap is certainly much nearer to the mass observed in TMI2 (∼10–20 tonnes) than to the whole mass contained in a core (100 tonnes). The main uncertainty for reactor applications still remains the knowledge of the distribution and configuration of the relocated corium.     

The effect of corium composition and interaction vessel geometry on the prototypic steam explosion

This paper discusses the results of steam explosion experiments using molten material consisting of UO₂ and ZrO₂ mixture, which is called corium, to simulate a prototypic steam explosion in a nuclear reactor during a postulated severe accident. About 5–10 kg of molten material with enough superheat was poured into a pool of water in a test section at room temperature to simulate ex-vessel steam explosion in the reactor situation. Most of the experiments were externally triggered. The purpose of the experiments was to investigate the effect of material composition and average void fraction on the strength of a prototypic steam explosion, which were highlighted as major unresolved issues.The experiments were performed using two kinds of mixtures, one, corium A, at 70:30 weight percent composition of UO₂ and ZrO₂, close to eutectic composition, and the other, corium B, at 80:20 weight percent. Also, two kinds of cylindrical test sections having a different diameter were used. It turned out that corium A was likely to produce an energetic steam explosion, while corium B seldom led to an energetic steam explosion. The existence of mush phase for the non-eutectic mixture is suggested to be the reason for the difference. Comparative cross sectional views of the corium particles by scanning electron microscope supported the proposed argument. The tests performed with a narrow test section seldom led to an energetic steam explosion for both materials. An increase in average void is suggested to be the reason for the non-explosive behavior, which is consistent with the physical models employed in the current steam explosion computer codes.     

Simulation of MCCI with the TOLBIAC-ICB code based on the phase segregation model

In the event of a severe accident in a pressurized water reactor, corium, a mixture of molten materials issued from the fuel, cladding and structural elements, appears in the reactor core. In some circumstances, corium is likely to melt through the reactor pressure vessel and spread over the concrete basemat of the reactor pit. Molten core concrete interaction (MCCI) then occurs. The main question that has to be addressed in this scenario is whether and when the corium will make its way through the basemat. For some years, CEA is developing a numerical code named TOLBIAC-ICB in order to simulate molten core concrete interaction in reactor case. The general approach used in this code is based on the phase segregation model developed by CEA. The solid phase is supposed to be located at the corium pool boundaries as a solid crust composed of refractory oxides, whereas the corium pool contains no solid. The interfacial temperature between the crust and the pool is the liquidus temperature calculated with the composition of the pool. The interaction between thermalhydraulics (mass and energy balances) and physico-chemistry (liquidus temperature, crust composition, chemical reaction) is modelled through a coupling between TOLBIAC-ICB and the GEMINI code for the determination of the physico-chemistry variables. The main purpose of this paper is to present the modelling used in TOLBIAC-ICB and some validation calculations using the data of experiments available in the literature.