Thermal characteristics of fires in a noncombustible corner

A series of fire tests were conducted in a full-scale open corner with a ceiling to measure the thermal field generated by fires located in a corner. Fires were produced using different size (0.17, 0.30, and 0.50 m) square and line propane burners with heat release rates ranging from 25 to 300 kW. Burner distance below the ceiling was also considered. Measurements included flame length, gas temperatures, and total incident heat flux onto the noncombustible corner boundaries. Flame lengths were related to Q*, with the burner dimension as the length scale, and were found to be similar to those measured in studies with no ceiling. By dividing the corner into three regions (corner walls (z/H<0.8), top of the walls (z/H>0.8), and ceiling, empirical relations for estimating the gas temperatures and incident heat fluxes were developed. Incident heat fluxes on the corner walls were measured to be similar to those in other studies.     

Modeling fire growth in a combustible corner

A fire growth model was developed to predict the flame spread and total heat release rate of a fire in a corner configuration with a combustible lining. Input data for the combustible lining were developed using small-scale test data from the ASTM E1354 cone calorimeter and ASTM E1321 LIFT. The fire growth model includes a flame spread model linked with a two zone compartment fire model, CFAST Version 3.1.2. At a user selected time interval, the flame spread model uses the gas temperature from CFAST to predict the heat release rate of the fire at that time interval, and then provides CFAST with a new heat release rate to predict conditions during the next time step. The flame spread model is an improved version of the flat wall flame spread model previously developed for the US Navy. The model is capable of predicting flame spread in a variety of configurations including a flat wall, a corner with a ceiling, flat wall with a ceiling, unconfined ceiling, and parallel walls. The model has been validated against ISO 9705 test data and was used in this study to simulate conditions that develop in three open corner tests each with a different lining material. The model was able to predict the heat release rate of the fire and provide a reasonable estimate of the flame fronts and flame lengths during the growing fire.     

不同影剧院座椅连排燃烧特性试验研究

利用10 MW 大尺度量热计对不同影剧院座椅进行连排燃烧试验研究。建立座椅燃烧试验台，将15 把影剧院座椅分3 排台阶布置，通过对多人影剧院软质座椅排列在一起进行燃烧试验，提供燃烧产生的热释放速率、总热释放量、产烟速率、总产烟量相关特性信息。试验中，分别选取普通影剧院座椅与阻燃影剧院座椅分别进行连排燃烧试验，并将燃烧测试得到的热释放速率、总热释放量等燃烧性能参数进行了对比分析，同时对火焰传播速度进行了计算。结果表明：同样点火方式条件下，普通座椅连排燃烧在8 min 内发生轰燃，热释放速率峰值高达9.204 MW，总热释放量为1 957.2 MJ，经阻燃处理后，热释放速率峰值为83.6kW，总热释放量为27.33 MJ，其他燃烧性能指标均显著下降；普通影剧院座椅连排燃烧时，火焰规模大，火焰扩散速度快，经计算火焰传播速度为0.65 m/min。     

Fire development in a 1/3 train carriage mock-up

To study what parameters that control the initial fire spread and the development to local flashover in a metro carriage, a total of six fire tests were conducted in a mock-up of a metro carriage that is about 1/3 of a full wagon length. They were carried out under a large scale calorimeter in a laboratory environment. The focus was on the initial fire development in a corner scenario using different types of ignition source that may lead to a fully developed fire. The ignition sources used were either a wood crib placed on a corner seat or one litre of petrol poured on the corner seat and the neighbouring floor together with a backpack. The amount of luggage and wood cribs in the neighbourhood of the ignition source was continuously increased in order to identify the limits for flashover in the test-setup. The tests showed that the combustible boards on parts of the walls had a significant effect on the fire spread. In the cases where the initial fire did not exceed a range of 400–600 kW no flashover was observed. If the initial fire grew up to 700–900 kW a flashover was observed. The maximum heat release rate during a short flashover period for this test set-up was about 3.5 MW. The time to reach flashover was highly dependent on the ignition type: wood cribs or backpack and petrol. A full developed carriage fire was achieved as a result of intense radiation from the flames and ceiling smoke layer. This was mostly dependent on the amount of fire load nearby the ignition source and how strong the vertical flame spread on the high pressure laminate boards mounted to walls and ceiling above the ignition source was, leading to a ceiling flame. In such cases, the seats alone did not contain sufficient fuel for the fire to spread within the train, and additional fuel (luggage) is required near the seats. For fully developed carriage fires, the fire starting on the seat in the corner spread to the opposite seat on the same side of the aisle, then horizontally spread to seats on the other side of the aisle, and finally a longitudinal flame spread along the carriage was observed. When and where the fire stopped or whether it reached a fully developed stage was mostly dependent on the amount of fire load nearby the ignition source and how strong the vertical flame spread on the high pressure laminate boards mounted to walls and ceiling above the ignition source was.     

CFD and experimental studies of room fire growth on wall lining materials

CFD simulation and experimental tests have been carried out to study the room corner fire growth on combustible wall-lining materials. In the CFD simulation, the turbulent mass and heat transfer, and combustion were considered. The discrete transfer (DT) method was employed to calculate the radiation with an absorptivity and emissivity model employed to predict the radiation property of combustion products including soot, CO₂ and H₂O, which are usually the primary radiating species in the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. The temperature of the solid boundary was determined by numerical solution of the heat conduction equation. A simple and practical pyrolysis model was developed to describe the response of the solid fuel. This pyrolysis model was first tested against the Cone Calorimeter data for both charring and non-charring materials under different irradiance levels and then coupled to CFD calculations. Both full and one-third scale room corner fire growths on particle board were modelled with CFD. The calculation was tested with various numbers of rays and grid sizes, showing that the present choice gives practically grid- and ray number-independent predictions. The heat release rate, wall surface temperature, char depth, gas temperature and radiation flux are compared with experimental measurements. The results are reasonable and the comparison between prediction and experiment is fairly good and promising.     

Flammability of combustible materials in reduced oxygen environment

Flammability of combustible materials in reduced oxygen environment is studied using theoretical analysis and laboratory-scale experiments. The experimental results show that the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) at extinction and re-ignition can be measured using a variable oxygen concentration technique with uncertainties of ±0.5% (vol.). The imposed external radiant heat flux only affects the LOC measurements for the fuels tested in this work when the flux is less than 30 kW/m². Comparison of measured LOCs in parallel panel and horizontal geometries suggests that the latter appear to be more conservative given the same total incident heat flux to the fuel surface. A validation parallel panel test for fire propagation using PMMA at 15% (vol.) oxygen concentration confirmed fire propagation when the ambient oxygen concentration is higher than, but approaching the measured LOC. LOC calculations using critical flame temperature and Spalding's B-number theory provide qualitative agreement with the experimental data. However, quantitative comparison of calculations and measurements shows that the calculated LOCs are sensitive to the selection of flame temperature. Furthermore, calculations also show that LOCs do not change significantly if the ambient temperature varies no more than 40 K. Based on the experimental results, most of the combustible materials studied in this work such as polyethylene, oak and corrugated paper board will not be adequately protected if the ambient oxygen is maintained at 15% (vol.) or higher.     

Experimental study of natural roof ventilation in full-scale enclosure fire tests in a small compartment

An analysis of full-scale fire test experimental data is presented for a small compartment (3×3.6×2.3 m). A square steady fire source is placed in the center of the compartment. There is an open door and a horizontal opening in the roof, so that natural ventilation is established for the well-ventilated fire. A parameter study is performed, covering a range of total fire heat release rates (330, 440 and 550 kW), fire source areas (0.3×0.3 m and 0.6×0.6 m) and roof ventilation opening areas (1.45×1 m, 0.75×1 m and 0.5×1 m). The impact of the different parameters is examined on the smoke layer depth and the temperature variations in vertical direction in the compartment. Both mean temperatures and temperature fluctuations are reported. The total fire heat release rate value has the strongest influence on the hot smoke layer average temperature rise, while the influence of the fire source area and the roof opening is smaller. The hot smoke layer depth, determined from the measured temperature profiles, is primarily influenced by the fire source area, while the total fire heat release rate and the roof opening only have a small impact. Correlations are given for the hot smoke layer average temperature rise, the buoyancy reference velocity and the total smoke mass flow rate out of the compartment, as a function of the different parameters mentioned. Based on the experimental findings, it is discussed that different manual calculation methods, widely used for natural ventilation design of compartments in the case of fire, under-predict the hot layer thickness and total smoke mass flow rate, while the hot layer average temperature is over-estimated.     

Effect of ignition conditions on upward flame spread on a composite material in a corner configuration

This paper focuses on the issue of fire growth on composite materials beyond the region immediately subjected to an ignition source. Suppression of this growth is one of the key issues in realizing the safe usage of composite structural materials. A vinyl ester/glass composite was tested in the form of a 90° corner configuration with an inert ceiling segment 2.44 m above the top of the fire source. The igniter was a square propane burner at the base of the corner, either 23 or 38 cm in width, with power output varied from 30 to 150 kW. Upward flame spread rate and heat release rate were measured mainly for a brominated vinyl ester resin but limited results were also obtained for a non-flame retarded vinyl ester and a similar composite coated with an intumescent paint. Rapid fire growth to the top of the sample was seen in replicate tests for the largest igniter power case; the intumescent coating successfully prevented fire growth for this case.     

基于CONE的超高温耐火电缆火灾危险性分析

利用锥形量热仪对超高温耐火电缆在不同辐射功率下的点燃时间（TTI）、热释放速率（HRR）、质量损失速率（MLR）和燃烧残余物进行了研究。研究表明,随着辐射功率增加,耐火电缆的TTI逐渐缩短,HRR和MLR逐渐增大,火灾危险性逐渐增加。超高温耐火电缆在35 kW/m2和50 kW/m2辐射功率下火灾性能指数相比于25 kW/m2分别增加了44.4%和176.5%,火灾增长指数分别增加了30.4%和83.0%。结合理论分析可以得出,耐火电缆的临界辐射功率为3.61 kW/m2、零辐射平均热释放速率为36.5 kW/m2,表现出较低的火灾危险性。     

Transmission Through and Breakage of Multi-Pane Glazing Due to Radiant Exposure

A series of small and large-scale tests were performed to measure the radiant transmission of energy and the window breakage characteristics of seven different multi-plane glazing samples. The samples tested included both double and triple-pane glazing specimens with a laminate interlayer between panes for additional strength. These test series were designed to provide the information necessary to assess the hazard from radiant energy to building occupants and contents due to a large fire in close proximity to a structure with a large amount of exterior windows. For incident heat fluxes 30 kW/m² or lower, the triple-pane glazing samples had a total transmittance less than 10% of the incident heat flux, back-side surface temperatures did not exceed 100°C, and the back-side heat flux did not exceed 4 kW/m². For double-pane laminates, the total transmittance was less than 25% of the incident heat flux, the back-side temperature did not exceed 220°C, and the back-side heat flux did not exceed 5 kW/m². For incident heat fluxes greater than 30 kW/m², the glazing samples degraded very quickly, generally buckling and losing integrity. The time for the first pane to crack decreased with increasing incident flux level. A number of tests included a water deluge system, which served to maintain sample integrity for extended exposures. In these cases, the total transmittance was less than 6% of the incident heat flux, back-side surface temperatures did not exceed 45°C, and the back-side heat flux did not exceed 1 kW/m².     

Electrical Power Cord Damage from Radiant Heat and Fire Exposure

Nine SPT-1 and SPT-2 type two conductor energized appliance power cords were exposed to radiant heat and to flames in the presence and absence of combustible materials. The power cords consisted of integral and non-integral insulated multistranded 18 AWG copper conductors. The objectives of exposing these power cords to radiant heat and flame are to: evaluate the performance of the power cords in fire environments, and characterize the electrical activity and material damage sustained by the power cords. Data was recorded for 713 power cords tested under six different conditions. Not all of the power cords tested showed evidence of electrical fault activity. However, each power cord exposed to a radiant heat flux of 40 kW/m² in the presence of combustible material exhibited signs of electrical fault activity. Damage to the copper conductors varied from localized fusing to complete severance. Power cords exposed to a radiant heat flux of 40 kW/m² in the absence of combustibles did not always exhibit signs of electrical fault activity. Test data did not show any significant correlations among types of power cord damage/electrical activity and fire conditions.     

海上平台原油发电机火灾对邻近设施影响分析

海上平台原油发电机火灾事故产生的高温、热辐射会对邻近设备设施产生不利影响。以某海上平台原油发电机火灾事故为例,运用KFX软件对该火灾过程进行数值模拟,研究了邻近钢支撑、进油软管等关键构件处的温度、热辐射等参数的变化特征。基于温度准则和热辐射准则,研究了温度、热辐射通量临界点变化处时间点与持续时间参数。研究发现,邻近钢支撑2和3表面温度高达1 600 ℃以上,热辐射通量超过25 kW/m2,持续时间长,到达其发生变形与破坏的条件,泡沫释放时间过长造成极大影响。进油软管C处的热辐射强度超过15 kW/m2,到达了其熔化破坏条件,感烟探测器响应时间过长是其主要影响因素。以上研究结果,可为灾后支撑构件强度校核、火气系统响应时间设置等提供参考。     

EcoSmart Fire as Structure Ignition Model in Wildland Urban Interface: Predictions and Validations

EcoSmartFire is a Windows program that models heat damage and piloted ignition of structures from radiant exposure to discrete landscaped tree fires. It calculates the radiant heat transfer from cylindrical shaped fires to the walls and roof of the structure while accounting for radiation shadowing, attenuation, and ground reflections. Tests of litter burn, a 0.6 m diameter fire up to 250 kW heat release under a Heat Release Rate (HRR) hood, with Schmidt-Boelter heat flux sensors in the mockup wall receiving up to 5 kW/m² radiant flux, in conjunction with Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) modeling verified a 30% radiant fraction, but indicated the need for a new empirical model of flame extinction coefficient and radiation temperature as function of fire diameter and heat release rate for use in ecoSmartFire. The radiant fluxes predicted with both ecoSmartFire and FDS agreed with SB heat flux sensors to within a few percent errors during litter fire growth. Further experimental work done with propane flame heating (also with 30% radiant fraction) on vertical redwood boards instrumented with embedded thermocouples validated the predicted temperature response to within 20% error for both models. The final empirical correlation for flame extinction coefficient and temperature is valid for fire diameters between 0.2 and 7.9 m, with heat release rates up to 1000 kW. From the corrected radiant flux the program calculates surface temperatures for a given burn time (typically 30 s) and weather conditions (typically dry, windy, and warm for website application) for field applications of many trees and many structural surfaces. An example was provided for a simple house exposed to 4 burning trees selected on a Google enhanced mapping that showed ignition of a building redwood siding. These temperatures were compared to damage or ignition temperatures with output of the percentage of each cladding surface that is damaged or ignited, which a homeowner or a landscaper can use to optimize vegetation landscaping in conjunction with house exterior cladding selections. The need for such physics-based fire modeling of tree spacing was indicated in NFPA 1144 for home ignitability in wildland urban interface, whereas no other model is known to provide such capability.     

Model scale tunnel fire tests with longitudinal ventilation

Results from a series of tests in a model tunnel (1:23) are presented. Tests were carried out with longitudinal ventilation under different fire conditions. Wood cribs were used to simulate the fire source, which was designed to correspond to a scaled-down HGV (Heavy Goods Vehicle) fire load. The parameters tested were: the number of wood cribs, type of wood cribs, the longitudinal ventilation rate and the ceiling height. The heat release rate, fire growth rate, maximum gas temperature beneath the ceiling, temperature distribution, total heat flux at floor level, flame length, and back-layering length were investigated. Correlations for these parameters were investigated and proposed for longitudinal flow in tunnels.     

Experimental study on fire performance of cross laminated timber structure exposed to compartment fire

为了研究室内自然火灾作用下可燃的正交胶合木(cross laminated timber, CLT)对CLT房间火灾荷载的贡献和不同层板组成的CLT对火灾的动态影响，开展4次内表面受火面积不同、板材层板组成不同的CLT房间自然火灾试验，直接受火CLT面积占CLT房间内表面积百分比分别为0%、19.8%、36.4%和87.6%；并以双区域模型为基础，建立考虑炭化层脱落的CLT结构室内自然火灾温度场计算模型，对CLT房间火灾试验进行模拟，分析双区域模型应用于CLT结构自然火灾时的有效性及局限性。试验结果表明：CLT受火面积对室内自然火灾发展过程及热量释放影响显著，随着CLT受火面积的增大燃烧速率显著提高，火灾的热释放速率增大；炭化层是否脱落对火灾发展过程影响显著，炭化层脱落时间及区域存在随机性；CLT单层层板厚度越薄，炭化层越早发生脱落；考虑CLT燃烧及炭化层脱落的双区域模型可一定程度上准确模拟CLT房间自然火灾室内空气温度，但是火灾降温阶段双区域模型预测的温度始终低于试验温度。     

辐射热作用下金属钠燃烧现象试验研究

在辐射热通量为25~60kW/m²条件下对利用锥形量热仪对金属钠的燃烧现象进行了研究,测量了燃烧尾气中的氧气含量与剩余物料的质量。结果表明:随着环境热通量增加,金属钠燃烧现象存在较大差异性,残留物数量逐渐减少至完全参与燃烧。当辐射热通量小于30kW/m²时,金属钠未出现明火燃烧;在外界辐射热通量为50~60kW/m²时,金属钠发生较不稳定、不充分的明火燃烧;当辐射热通量大于60kW/m²时,金属钠发生较为稳定且全面的明火燃烧。     

室内火灾作用下正交胶合木结构受火性能研究

为了研究室内自然火灾作用下可燃的正交胶合木(cross laminated timber, CLT)对CLT房间火灾荷载的贡献和不同层板组成的CLT对火灾的动态影响,开展4次内表面受火面积不同、板材层板组成不同的CLT房间自然火灾试验,直接受火CLT面积占CLT房间内表面积百分比分别为0%、19.8%、36.4%和87.6%;并以双区域模型为基础,建立考虑炭化层脱落的CLT结构室内自然火灾温度场计算模型,对CLT房间火灾试验进行模拟,分析双区域模型应用于CLT结构自然火灾时的有效性及局限性。试验结果表明：CLT受火面积对室内自然火灾发展过程及热量释放影响显著,随着CLT受火面积的增大燃烧速率显著提高,火灾的热释放速率增大;炭化层是否脱落对火灾发展过程影响显著,炭化层脱落时间及区域存在随机性;CLT单层层板厚度越薄,炭化层越早发生脱落;考虑CLT燃烧及炭化层脱落的双区域模型可一定程度上准确模拟CLT房间自然火灾室内空气温度,但是火灾降温阶段双区域模型预测的温度始终低于试验温度。     

Flame spread limits (LOC) of fire resistant fabrics

Selecting fabrics based on their fire resistance is important for professions with substantial fire risk such as firefighters, race car drivers, and astronauts suits. Generally, fire resistant materials are tested under standard atmospheric conditions. However, their flammability properties can change when the ambient conditions deviate from standard atmospheric conditions. Particularly in high altitude locations, aircraft, and spacecraft, the pressure and oxygen concentrations are different than in a standard atmosphere. Also, the presence of external radiation (i.e. overheating component or nearby fire) can reduced the fire resistance of a material. In this work, an experimental study was conducted to analyze the influence of environmental variables such as oxygen concentration, ambient pressure, and external radiant heat flux on the flame spread limits of two different fire resistant fabrics: Nomex HT90-40 and a blend made of Cotton/Nylon/Nomex. Ambient pressure was varied between 40 and 100 kPa and ambient oxygen concentrations were decreased until the Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC), limiting conditions which would permit flame propagation, were found. Experiments were conducted using no external radiant flux or a radiant flux of 5 kW/m² to examine the influence of the presence of a nearby heat source. Among the results, it was found that as ambient pressure is reduced the oxygen concentration required for the flame to propagate must be increased. The external radiant heat flux acts as an additional source of heat and allows propagation of the flame at lower oxygen concentrations. An analysis of the propagation limits in terms of the partial pressure of oxygen suggest that the LOC of a material is not only determined by heat transfer mechanisms but also by chemical kinetic mechanisms. The information provided in this work helps characterize increased flammability risk of materials when in environments different from the standard atmospheric conditions at which they are typically tested.     

Flame Heights and Heat Transfer in Façade System Ventilation Cavities

The design of buildings using multilayer constructions poses a challenge for fire safety and needs to be understood. Narrow air gaps and cavities are common in many constructions, e.g. ventilated façade systems. In these construction systems flames can enter the cavities and fire can spread on the interior surfaces of the cavities. An experimental program was performed to investigate the influence of the cavity width on the flame heights, the fire driven upward flow and the incident heat fluxes to the inner surfaces of the cavity. The experimental setup consisted of two parallel facing non-combustible plates (0.8 × 1.8 m) and a propane gas burner placed at one of the inner surfaces. The cavity width between the plates ranged from 0.02 m to 0.1 m and the burner heat release rate was varied from 16.5 kW to 40.4 kW per m of the burner length. At least three repeated tests were performed for each scenario. In addition, tests with a single plate were performed. The flame heights did not significantly change for Q′/W < 300 kW/m² (where Q′ is the heat release rate per unit length of the burner and W is the cavity width). For higher Q′/W ratios flame extensions up to 2.2 times were observed. When the distance between the plates was reduced or the heat release rate was increased, the incident heat fluxes to the inner surface increased along the entire height of the test setup. The results can be used for analysing methodologies for predicting heat transfer and fire spread in narrow air cavities.     

Energy balance in a large compartment fire

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) are collaborating to assess and validate fire computer codes for nuclear power plant applications. This evaluation is being conducted through a series of benchmarking and validation exercises. The goal of the present study was to provide data from a large-scale fire test of a simulated nuclear power plant cable room. The experiments consisted of a hydrocarbon spray fire with a 1 MW heat release rate, burning in a single compartment 7 m wide, 22 m long, and 4 m high. Measurements included the vertical temperature profiles, heat flux to the compartment surfaces, the velocity and temperature at the compartment doorway, and the total heat release rate. From these measurements, an energy balance was considered, in which it was determined that nearly 74% of the fire's energy went to heat compartment surfaces, 22% escaped through the doorway, and 4% heated gases in the compartment.