不同应力途径下辉长岩的微破裂特征

本文对济南辉长岩经历不同应力途径后岩石晶粒内的微破裂特征的观测进行了研究.实验中岩石样品首先承受较高的围压(使应力差达到岩石强度的80%),然后分别按 A,B,C 三种途径进行实验.三种途径已在另一文中作了叙述(见地震学报第2卷第3期237页).实验结束后,将岩石样品切开,制成标准薄片及光片.通过显微镜的观测发现,三种应力途径所引起的微破裂性质明显不同.在 B 型实验中,长石晶粒内的微裂纹表现得短小,其长度多数不超过长石晶粒短轴的长度.整个岩石样品内微裂纹的分布密集于较小的范围内.在 C型实验中,倾斜裂纹数量增多,长石晶粒中的裂纹比 A 和 B 实验更长和更多,出现一种星状的微裂纹.观测到的辉长岩的微观现象可能说明与岩石标本过密、超膨胀现象有关.      

真三轴压缩时几种岩样微破裂定位的初步结果

实验用盈江花岗岩、蝴蝶泉斜花岗岩及龙陵花岗岩在真三轴压机上压缩(1>2>3)直至岩样破裂.采用8通道高速微破裂数据采集分析系统对岩石破裂孕育过程中的微破裂时空分布做了初步分析.结果表明:在声发射变化的第Ⅰ阶段,微破裂较多;第Ⅱ阶段微破裂较少.但都分布紊乱且遍布整个岩样.当应力继续上升达声发射变化的第Ⅲ阶段,微破裂再次增多并逐步形成空区,只在主破裂前很短时间才形成条带分布.      

三维初始破裂的理论与实验研究及其在解释断层现象中的意义

简述了受压表面(半椭圆)裂纹的三维破裂实验结果,并对三维破裂的应力判据理论进行了研究。对弥合初始破裂的方法进行了改进。指出Palaniswamy和Knauss提出的极值(EV)方法存在重要缺陷,主要是只考虑了两个欧拉角(2EA),忽略了第三个欧拉角的变化。如果将三个欧拉角(3EA)全部考虑进去,其弥合效果会有质的变化,能够弥合成实验观测到的曲面,而不是平面。提出了法向矢量法(NSDV),并证明和3欧拉角法(3EA)等效。证明法向矢量法(NSDV)可以进一步优化为求最大主应力的主面集合法(CFPDP)。用主面集合法的计算结果可以很好地弥合已有的三维破裂实验中观察到的初始破裂曲面。主面集合法可以用于椭圆裂纹模型弥合埋深断层的滑动段破裂。三维破裂研究的结果,可以用来解释地震断层中大量的跨尺度破碎现象,解释板缘断层在低剪切力作用下地震的发生以及孕震过程中EDA(张性扩容各向异性)裂隙引起的介质各向异性机理。     

真三轴压缩下大理岩试件中弹性波传播特性的实验研究

在σ_1>σ_2>σ_3的真三轴压缩试验机上进行了弹性波在大理岩试件中传播时沿σ_2(x方向)和σ_3(y方向)的走时、幅值及衰减特性的实验研究。随着载荷应力增加,在x方向上,P波第一个波峰的走时t减小,幅值A减小;在y方向则相反。大约从破坏应力的95%开始,两个方向上t又都迅速增加,A减小,波列振幅衰减系数K也减小,这是真三轴压缩情况下的一种破裂前兆变化特征。Ⅰ型应力途径t开始迅速增加时的差应力值低于Ⅱ型     

基于大型水力压裂实验系统的室内模拟研究

室内水力压裂模拟实验是认识裂缝压裂机理、获取水力压裂信号的有效手段,可为进一步提高水力压裂技术在页岩气等非常规油气资源开发方面的应用提供技术支持.本文根据野外水力压裂施工工艺和微压裂地震信号监测的特点,设计并制造了大模型水力压裂模拟装置,该装置包括真三轴围压系统、水压裂系统和微压裂信号采集系统,可以实现相同或不同围压状态下的水力压裂试验,并对裂缝产生、裂缝扩展的整个物理过程进行水力压力信号和岩石压裂破裂信号的采集,形成了一套完整的微压裂实验技术.通过水力压裂实验,首次在实验室内获得了真三轴围压下大模型的水利压力和水力压裂信号的关系,为水力压裂信号的分析和压裂裂缝的定位提供了基础.     

1973年马边地震前后波速比的空间分布和异常变化

在室内的岩石破裂实验中,曾多次观测到波速的各向异性。托切尔(D,Tocher)的结果表明,平行压力方向波速的增加比垂直压力方向快得多。在某些情形下,差别大约超过10%。1973年古普塔(I.N.Gupta)的实验认为P波速度下降的最大值发生在最小压力轴方向上。1971年努尔(A.Nur)从理论上探讨了含裂缝的岩石中速度的各向异性问     

原始电阻率各向异性岩石电阻率变化的方向性

在3种非含岩成分造成的岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本(在采集和加工过程中，标本完整性遭 到破坏的标本)，和一种由含岩成分形成的 岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本上，布设多个电极，并将标本用水饱和. 然后用多电极组合法 ，将己布电极组合成不同方向、不同极距的电阻率各向异性测线. 采用单轴压缩、低围压 三 轴压缩和剪切3种加载方式，对标本进行动态电阻率变化实验. 观测标本电阻率随承载力的 变化. 实验结果表明∶对于岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本，在电阻率变化各向异性方面，与 岩石 原始电阻率各向同性标本相似，即∶裂隙和破碎带通过区域的测点，视电阻率变化各向异性 结果好，４种组合求得的４个各向异性主轴方向趋向一致，且与破碎带方向基本吻合；裂隙 和破碎带不经过区域的测点，４个视电阻率变化各向异性主轴方向不一致，或者根本求不出 各向异性解. 这后一种情况，在裂隙面平行测量面时，表现最为明显.     

应力历史与岩石声发射关系的实验研究

本文从实验角度对岩石声发射的凯塞效应进行了研究,研究工作分三个方面1°应力水平对凯塞效应的影响;2°蠕变—疲痨对岩石变形的加速作用;3°高应力下应力作用时间对凯塞效应的影响,实验证明:低应力下岩石凯塞效应清晰,当应力升高,岩石发生体积膨胀以后凯塞效应变得模糊起来,实验对产生这一现象的原因进行了研究.并证明经过适当处理后使记忆效应保持清晰是有可能的.     

承压介质电阻率变化的方向性 与主应力的关系

介质电阻率变化的方向性与主应力方向的关系研究一直受到岩石电阻率实验和地震学等学科的关注. 本文在电极面4 cm×8 cm, 6 cm×12 cm, 8 cm×16 cm和4.6 cm×10 cm的10块分别为花岗岩、 凝灰质粗砂岩(夹砾石)和细晶花岗岩标本上及100 cm×100 cm的1块人工合成模型上, 采用对称四极法布设多位置、 多极距、 多方位电阻率测线, 用单轴压缩、 二维约束差应力压缩、 低围压三轴差应力压缩和真三轴差应力压缩方式加载. 其中在单轴压缩和低围压三轴压缩加载方式下, 7块岩石标本中的4块被压破, 3块没有被压破, 只压到电阻率出现明显的下降异常时卸压. 另在上述10块岩石标本中, 还有3块是电阻率原始各向异性标本. 将这样11块标本所获得的多位置、 多极距、 多方位测线电阻率资料, 按从开始加载到破裂的过程, 分成30%附近破裂应力段、 50%附近破裂应力段、 80%附近破裂应力段和100%破裂应力段, 研究同一测点多方位测道中该4个破裂应力段视电阻率变化最大(最小)幅度测线方位与力源最大主压应力方位的关系, 结果未发现二者之间有确定的关系.      

大尺度花岗闪长岩试件缓慢破裂过程的倾斜变化

本文叙述了1986年夏季在四川省西昌地震中心站进行的岩石膨胀破裂试验及伴随试件缓慢破裂过程的倾变观测结果。岩石主破裂前的异常倾变及破裂时的倾斜阶跃,较好地印证了实际地壳倾斜观测中记录到的一些现象(地震前兆、同震阶跃等)。文章还对“尺度效应”等问题进行了讨论。     

Relation of fracture resistance to fabric for granitic rocks

Double-torsion specimens of two granitic rocks were prepared in several directions with reference to microcracks fabric. Even for the same rock and at the same stress levels, the observed crack velocities in two granitic rocks were dependent on both the propagation direction and the opening direction. The maximum difference by several orders of magnitude was found for both rocks. The highest crack velocity was observed when the subcritical crack was parallel to most of the preexisting cracks. The maximum critical stress intensity factor was about twice as high as the minimum one in different directions. An analysis for a thin plate having anisotropic elasticity under torsional load showed that the observed difference in the crack velocity and the critical stress intensity factor was not an error due to conventional equations derived on the assumption of isotropic elasticity but the true material's property. As the preferred orientation of microcracks has been pointed out for many granitic rocks, we can conclude that the anisotropic nature of the fracture resistance of the two granitic rocks used in this study was not exceptional. A region of a transport-limited velocity was not found for rocks, even at the velocity of 10^–2 m/s, that is almost equal to the theoretical limit of the stress corrosion cracking.     

Permeability of Triaxially Compressed Sandstone: Influence of Deformation and Strain-rate on Permeability

— The influence of differential stress on the permeability of a Lower Permian sandstone was investigated. Rock cylinders of 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm length of a fine-grained (mean grain size 0.2 mm), low-porosity (6–9%) sandstone were used to study the relation between differential stress, rock deformation, rock failure and hydraulic properties, with a focus on the changes of hydraulic properties in the pre-failure and failure region of triaxial rock deformation. The experiments were conducted at confining pressures up to 20 MPa, and axial force was controlled by lateral strain with a rate ranging from 10^?6 to 10^?7 sec^?1. While deforming the samples, permeability was determined by steady-state technique with a pressure gradient of 1 MPa over the specimen length and a fluid pressure level between 40 and 90% of the confining pressure. The results show that permeability of low-porosity sandstones under increasing triaxial stress firstly decreases due to compaction and starts to increase after the onset of dilatancy. This kind of permeability evolution is similar to that of crystalline rocks. A significant dependence of permeability evolution on strain rate was found. Comparison of permeability to volumetric strain demonstrates that the permeability increase after the onset of dilatancy is not sufficient to regain the initial permeability up to failure of the specimen. The initial permeability, which was determined in advance of the experiments, usually was regained in the post-failure region. After the onset of dilatancy, the permeability increase displays a linear dependence on volumetric strain.     

True Triaxial Stresses and the Brittle Fracture of Rock

This paper reviews the efforts made in the last 100 years to characterize the effect of the intermediate principal stress σ ₂ on brittle fracture of rocks, and on their strength criteria. The most common theories of failure in geomechanics, such as those of Coulomb, and Mohr, disregard σ ₂ and are typically based on triaxial testing of cylindrical rock samples subjected to equal minimum and intermediate principal stresses (σ ₃=σ ₂). However, as early as 1915 Böker conducted conventional triaxial extension tests (σ ₁=σ ₂) on the same Carrara marble tested earlier in conventional triaxial compression by von Kármán that showed a different strength behavior. Efforts to incorporate the effect of σ ₂ on rock strength continued in the second half of the last century through the work of Nadai, Drucker and Prager, Murrell, Handin, Wiebols and Cook, and others. In 1971 Mogi designed a high-capacity true triaxial testing machine, and was the first to obtain complete true triaxial strength criteria for several rocks based on experimental data. Following his pioneering work, several other laboratories developed equipment and conducted true triaxial tests revealing the extent of σ ₂ effect on rock strength (e.g., Takahashi and Koide, Michelis, Smart, Wawersik). Testing equipment emulating Mogi's but considerably more compact was developed at the University of Wisconsin and used for true triaxial testing of some very strong crystalline rocks. Test results revealed three distinct compressive failure mechanisms, depending on loading mode and rock type: shear faulting resulting from extensile microcrack localization, multiple splitting along the σ ₁ axis, and nondilatant shear failure. The true triaxial strength criterion for the KTB amphibolite derived from such tests was used in conjunction with logged breakout dimensions to estimate the maximum horizontal in situ stress in the KTB ultra deep scientific hole.     

A Model for the Mechanical Behaviour of Bentheim Sandstone in the Brittle Regime

— The mechanical behaviour of Bentheim sandstone, a homogeneous quartz-rich sandstone with porosity of 22.8%, was investigated by triaxial compression tests conducted on dry samples. At confining pressures up to 35 MPa, the failure mode was characterized by a typical brittle deformation regime, as the samples showed dilatancy and failed by strain softening and brittle faulting. Previous studies have shown that the mechanical behaviour and failure mode of brittle porous granular rocks are governed by the time-dependent growth of microcracks. We analyse this process using the “Pore Crack Model” based on fracture mechanics analysis. It is consistent with the microstructure of porous granular rocks since it considers the growth of axial cracks from cylindrical holes in two dimensions. These cracks grow when their stress intensity factors reach the subcritical crack growth limit. Interaction between neighbouring cracks is introduced by calculating the stress intensity factor as the sum of two terms: a component for an isolated crack and an interaction term computed using the method of successive approximations. It depends on crack length, pore radius, pore density, and applied stresses. The simulation of crack growth from cylindrical holes, associated with a failure criterion based on the coalescence of interacting cracks, is used to compare the theoretical stress at the onset of dilatancy and at macroscopic rupture to the experimental determined values. Our approach gives theoretical results in good agreement with experimental data when microstructural parameters consistent with observations are introduced.     

恒应变率试验中岩石膨胀与应变能损耗特性的研究

借助广义品质因数和变形的归一化处理方法,分析了房山砂岩在10~(-5)/s恒应变率试验中膨胀和应变能损耗特征.结果表明,房山砂岩的膨胀伴随着应变能的迅速耗散,差应力-体应变曲线在膨胀阶段出现的反转点与应变能损耗曲线的特征点相对应.     

三轴应力下花岗岩声发射P波Q值的变化

50×50×100mm3盈江花岗岩样品在σ3=30MPa、σ2=60MPa时增加σ1直至破裂,用波传播和谱振幅比法测定破裂孕育过程中σ3方向和σ2方向声发射P波Q值。结果表明:1.在σ1<0.07σ1P(最大破裂压强)时,σ3、σ2方向都保持高值,在0.2σ1P≤σ1≤0.551P期间,两个方向的Q值呈现出比较平稳的状态,其平均值Q3大约10至20,σ2方向Q2大约20至30。在σ1>0.55σ1P后,σ3方向Q3值起伏增长较大,而σ2方向Q2值仅在σ1>0.7σ1P后,才起伏增长,幅度不如σ3方向大。2.随压力的增加,在σ3、σ2两方向,低频成分明显加大。3.当σ1>0.951P后,出现一种记录畸变现象,对同一源点声发射,从沿同一方向两道记录上看出,早到波形振幅小,而晚到波形其振幅反而大     

A theoretical derivation of the dilatancy equation for brittle rocks based on Maxwell model

In this paper, the micro-cracks in the brittle rocks are assumed to be penny shaped and evenly distributed; the damage and dilatancy of the brittle rocks is attributed to the growth and expansion of numerous micro-cracks under the local tensile stress. A single crack’s behaviour under the local tensile stress is generalized to all cracks based on the distributed damage mechanics. The relationship between the local tensile stress and the external loading is derived based on the Maxwell model. The damage factor corresponding to the external loading is represented using the p–alpha (p–α) model. A dilatancy equation that can build up a link between the external loading and the rock dilatancy is established. A test of dilatancy of a brittle rock under triaxial compression is conducted; the comparison between experimental results and our theoretical results shows good consistency.     

The influence of microcrack density on the elastic and fracture mechanical properties of Stripa granite

Microcracks can have a strong influence on the elastic and fracture mechanical properties of rocks if they are numerous, or if they are orientated in unfavourable directions in anisotropic rocks in particular. This paper presents results from a great number of mechanical tests on Stripa granite containing various amounts of microcracks. Variations in the microcrack density were obtained by shock-heating the rock at different temperatures in the range 100–600°C for 3 h.The results presented are obtained from sound velocity measurements, uniaxial compression tests, Brazilian tests and three-point bending tests. The density of microcracks in the heated rock is studied by means of optical microscopy, SEM and differential strain analysis (DSA).Some of the calculated parameters show a maximum value for specimens heat-treated at about 100°C. The tensile strength is, for instance, substantially higher for specimens shock-heated at 100°C than for non-heated ones. Another striking feature is the initial decrease of the diameter observed in specimens heat-treated at 600°C when loaded in uniaxial compression. Both optical microscopy and DSA experiments reveal a large increase in microcracking when the heat-treatment temperature exceeds 300°C.     

Finite strain rock plasticity: stress triaxiality, pressure, and temperature effects

An elasto-plasticity theory is used to model the deformation of geological materials under various confining pressures and moderate temperatures. The effects of material hardening (or softening due to volumetric strains) are included, and the corresponding elasto-plastic rate constitutive relations are developed. To study the influence of pressure and temperature on the constitutive parameters, we use some published data of laboratory experiments on certain rocks. It is shown that over a wide range of pressures and low to moderate temperatures, when the rate effect can be ignored, the model can be used to describe the behaviour of geological materials. Based on this theory, dilatancy (i.e., inelastic volumetric expansion) of an intact granite is studied under conventional triaxial stress states. The effect of pressure and temperature on the magnitude of dilation and on the stress (measured relative to the peak stress) at the onset of dilatancy is investigated. It is found that, consistent with experimental data, the theory predicts this stress to be about 50% of the peak stress, but its specific value depends on pressure and temperature. As an illustration, stress-strain curves for intact granite at relatively shallow crustal depths are then predicted for possible application to the study of crustal deformation and for the prediction of fault behaviour.     

VOLUMETRIC CHANGES IN ROCK SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT STRESS PATHS

The volumetric changes in Jinan gabbro and Changping granite subject ed to three different stress paths have been studied. In all cases the rockwas first loaded to a pre-determined stress state below that which would be conducive to fracture. This was then followed by three different cases of loading. Case A: The maximum principal stress was continuously increased to induce fracture. Case B: The minimum principal stress was decreased to induce fracture. Case C. The minimum principal stress was increased to prevent fracture. The experiments showed that for the same rock dilatant behaviour was different along different stress paths. When compared with the dilatant behaviour during case A experiments(i.e. the conventional triaxial experiments) the rocks were found to be in a superdense state for a case B stress path and in an ultra-dilatant state for a case C stress path.