A COMPOSITE STUDY OF RAINFALL ASYMMETRY OF TROPICAL CYCLONES AFTER MAKING LANDFALL IN GUANGDONG PROVINCE

Based on observed rainfall data, this study makes a composite analysis of rainfall asymmetry in tropical cyclones(TCs) after making landfall in Guangdong province(GD) during 1998—2015. There are 3.0 TCs per year on average making landfall in GD and west of GD(WGD) has the most landfall TCs. Most of TCs make landfall in June,July, August, and September at the intensities of TY, STS, and TS. On average, there is more rainfall in the southwest quadrant of TC in CGD(center of GD), WGD, and GD as a whole, and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The mean TC rainfall in the east of GD(EGD) leans to the eastern side of TC. The TC rainfall distributions in June, July, August, and September all lean to the southwest quadrant and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The same features are found in the mean rainfall of TD, TS, STS, TY,and STY. The maximum rainfall is mainly in the downshear of vertical wind shear. Vertical wind shear is probably the dominate factor that determines asymmetric rainfall distribution of TCs in GD. Storm motion has little connection with TC rainfall asymmetry in GD.     

Dynamical effects of environmental vertical wind shear on tropical cyclone motion, structure, and intensity

Summary A series of numerical experiments on an f plane are conducted using the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model, version 3 (MM5) to investigate how environmental vertical wind shear affects the motion, structure, and intensity of a tropical cyclone. The results show that a tropical cyclone has a motion component perpendicular to the vertical shear vector, first to the right of the shear and then to the left. An initially axisymmetric, upright tropical cyclone vortex develops a downshear tilt and wavenumber-one asymmetry when embedded in environmental vertical wind shear. In both small-moderate shears, a storm weakens slightly compared to that in a quiescent environment. The circulation centers between 300 hPa and the surface varies from 20 km to over 80 km. The secondary circulation becomes quite asymmetric about the surface cyclone center. As a result, convection on the upshear-right quadrant diminishes, limiting the upward heat transport in the eyewall and thus lowering the warm core and leading to a weakening of the storm. In strong vertical shear (above 12 m s⁻¹), the vertical tilt exceeds 160 km in 48 h of simulation and the secondary circulation on the upshear side is completely destroyed with low-level outflow. The axisymmetric component of eyewall convection weakens remarkably and becomes much less penetrative. As a result, the warm core becomes weak and appears at lower levels and the storm weakens rapidly accordingly. This up-down weakening mechanism discussed in this study is different from those previously discussed. It emphasizes the penetrative role of eyewall convection in transporting heat from the ocean to the mid-upper troposphere, maintaining the warm core structure of the tropical cyclone. The vertical shear is found negative to eyewall penetrative convection.     

AN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY ON DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION ASSOCIATED WITH LANDFALLING TROPICAL CYCLONES AFFECTING CHINA

In order to provide an operational reference for tropical cyclone precipitation forecast,this study investigates the spatial distributions of precipitation associated with landfalling tropical cyclones(TCs) affecting China using Geostationary Meteorological Satellite 5(GMS5)-TBB dataset.All named TCs formed over the western North Pacific that made direct landfall over China during the period 2001-2009 are included in this study.Based on the GMS5-TBB data,this paper reveals that in general there are four types of distribution of precipitation related to landfalling TCs affecting China.(a) the South-West Type in which there is a precipitation maximum to the southwestern quadrant of TC;(b) the Symmetrical South Type in which the rainfall is more pronounced to the south side of TC in the inner core while there is a symmetrical rainfall distribution in the outer band region;(c) the South Type,in which the rainfall maxima is more pronounced to the south of TC;and(d) the North Type,in which the rainfall maxima is more pronounced to the north of TC.Analyses of the relationship between precipitation distributions and intensity of landfalling TCs show that for intensifying TCs,both the maximum and the coverage area of the precipitation in TCs increase with the increase of TC intensity over northern Jiangsu province and southern Taiwan Strait,while decreasing over Beibu Gulf and the sea area of Changjiang River estuary.For all TCs,the center of the torrential rain in TC shifts toward the TC center as the intensity of TC increases.This finding is consistent with many previous studies.The possible influences of storm motion and vertical wind shear on the observed precipitation asymmetries are also examined.Results show that the environmental vertical wind shear is an important factor contributing to the large downshear rainfall asymmetry,especially when a TC makes landfall on the south and east China coasts.These results are also consistent with previous observational and numerical studies.     

西北太平洋热带气旋变性过程中的风及降水分布变化特征分析

利用中国气象局上海台风研究所（CMA/STI）整编的热带气旋最佳路径资料、美国飓风联合警报中心（JTWC）最佳路径资料、美国国家海洋与大气管理局（NOAA）的全球多平台热带气旋风场资料（MTCSWA）和CMORPH降水资料、日本卫星云顶黑体辐射温度（T_BB）资料等,分析1987～2016年30年间西北太平洋228个变性热带气旋（ETTC）的活动规律、风与降水分布及其演变特征。结果表明:（1）ETTC年均7.6个,除1～2月,各月均有分布,峰值在9月。约90.4%的ETTC变性位置在30°N以北,仅约9.6%在30°N以南较低纬度,且多发生于春夏和秋冬交替季节。（2）TC（热带气旋）变性通常发生在其转向后,半数以上移速加快,大多数中心气压升高或维持,仅10.5%降低。（3）变性过程中ETTC近中心最大风速减小,最大风速半径增大,内核趋于松散。其34节风圈半径北侧明显大于南侧,风场结构非对称性增强。（4）ETTC强风和强降水呈显著非对称性分布,其强风区主要出现在ETTC中心东侧,即路径右后方;强降水区主要出现在北侧,且变性后在东北象限向外扩张。（5）较强的环境水平风垂直切变（VWS）是影响ETTC风及降水分布的重要因子。强降水主要出现在顺风切方向及其左侧,强风（去除TC移速时）出现在切变左侧。     

Effects of Vertical Wind Shear on Intensity and Rainfall Asymmetries of Strong Tropical Storm Bilis （2006）

The effects of environmental vertical wind shear(VWS)on the intensity and rainfall asymmetries in Tropical Storm(TS)Bilis(2006)have been analyzed based on TRMM/TMI-estimated surface rainfall data,QuikSCAT wind fields,850-and 200-hPa winds of the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis,precipitation data at 5-min intervals from automatic weather stations over mainland China,and the best track data of TS Bilis(2006). The results show that the simultaneous and 6-hour-lagged correlation coeffcients between VWS and storm intensity(the minimum central sea level pressure)are 0.59145 and 0.57438(P0.01),respectively.The averaged VWS was found to be about 11 m s-1 and thus suppressed the intensification of Bilis(2006). Distribution of precipitation in Bilis(2006)was highly asymmetric.The azimuthally-averaged rainfall rate in the partial eyewall,however,was smaller than that in a major outer rainband.As the storm intensified,the major rainband showed an unusual outward propagation.The VWS had a great impact on the asymmetric distribution of precipitation.Consistent with previous modeling studies,heavy rainfall generally occurred downshear to downshear-left of the VWS vector both near and outside the eyewall,showing a strong wavenumber-one asymmetry,which was amplified as the VWS increased.     

Lightning activity and its relationship with typhoon intensity and vertical wind shear for Super Typhoon Haiyan (1330)

Super Typhoon Haiyan (1330), which occurred in 2013, is the most powerful typhoon during landfall in the meteorological record. In this study, the temporal and spatial distributions of lightning activity of Haiyan were analyzed by using the lightning data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network, typhoon intensity and position data from the China Meteorological Administration, and horizontal wind data from the ECMWF. Three distinct regions were identified in the spatial distribution of daily average lightning density, with the maxima in the inner core and the minima in the inner rainband. The lightning density in the intensifying stage of Haiyan was greater than that in its weakening stage. During the time when the typhoon intensity measured with maximum sustained wind speed was between 32.7 and 41.4 ms^?1, the storm had the largest lightning density in the inner core, compared with other intensity stages. In contrast to earlier typhoon studies, the eyewall lightning burst out three times. The first two eyewall lightning outbreaks occurred during the period of rapid intensification and before the maximum intensity of the storm, suggesting that the eyewall lightning activity could be used to identify the change in tropical cyclone intensity. The flashes frequently occurred in the inner core, and in the outer rainbands with the black body temperature below 220 K. Combined with the ECMWF wind data, the influences of vertical wind shear (VWS) on the azimuthal distribution of flashes were also analyzed, showing that strong VWS produced downshear left asymmetry of lightning activity in the inner core and downshear right asymmetry in the rainbands.     

EFFECTS OF VERTICAL WIND SHEAR ON INTENSITY AND STRUCTURE OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

In this study,the effect of vertical wind shear(VWS)on the intensification of tropical cyclone(TC)is investigated via the numerical simulations.Results indicate that weak shear tends to facilitate the development of TC while strong shear appears to inhibit the intensification of TC.As the VWS is imposed on the TC,the vortex of the cyclone tends to tilt vertically and significantly in the upper troposphere.Consequently,the upward motion is considerably enhanced in the downshear side of the storm center and correspondingly,the low-to mid-level potential temperature decreases under the effect of adiabatic cooling,which leads to the increase of the low-to mid-level static instability and relative humidity and then facilitates the burst of convection.In the case of weak shear,the vertical tilting of the vortex is weak and the increase of ascent,static instability and relative humidity occur in the area close to the TC center.Therefore,active convection happens in the TC center region and facilitates the enhancement of vorticity in the inner core region and then the intensification of TC.In contrast,due to strong VWS,the increase of the ascent,static instability and relative humidity induced by the vertical tilting mainly appear in the outer region of TC in the case with stronger shear,and the convection in the inner-core area of TC is rather weak and convective activity mainly happens in the outer-region of the TC.Therefore,the development of a warm core is inhibited and then the intensification of TC is delayed.Different from previous numerical results obtained by imposing VWS suddenly to a strong TC,the simulation performed in this work shows that,even when the VWS is as strong as 12 m s-1,the tropical storm can still experience rapid intensification and finally develop into a strong tropical cyclone after a relatively long period of adjustment.It is found that the convection plays an important role in the adjusting period.On one hand,the convection leads to the horizontal convergence of the low-level vorticity flux and therefore leads to the enhancement of the low-level vorticity in the inner-core area of the cyclone.On the other hand,the active ascent accompanying the convection tends to transport the low-level vorticity to the middle levels.The enhanced vorticity in the lower to middle troposphere strengths the interaction between the low-and mid-level cyclonical circulation and the upper-level circulation deviated from the storm center under the effect of VWS.As a result,the vertical tilting of the vortex is considerably decreased,and then the cyclone starts to develop rapidly.     

Lightning Activity and Its Relationship with Typhoon Intensity and Vertical Wind Shear for Super Typhoon Haiyan(1330)

Super Typhoon Haiyan(1330), which occurred in 2013, is the most powerful typhoon during landfall in the meteorological record. In this study, the temporal and spatial distributions of lightning activity of Haiyan were analyzed by using the lightning data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network,typhoon intensity and position data from the China Meteorological Administration, and horizontal wind data from the ECMWF. Three distinct regions were identified in the spatial distribution of daily average lightning density, with the maxima in the inner core and the minima in the inner rainband. The lightning density in the intensifying stage of Haiyan was greater than that in its weakening stage. During the time when the typhoon intensity measured with maximum sustained wind speed was between 32.7 and 41.4 m s-1, the storm had the largest lightning density in the inner core, compared with other intensity stages.In contrast to earlier typhoon studies, the eyewall lightning burst out three times. The first two eyewall lightning outbreaks occurred during the period of rapid intensification and before the maximum intensity of the storm, suggesting that the eyewall lightning activity could be used to identify the change in tropical cyclone intensity. The flashes frequently occurred in the inner core, and in the outer rainbands with the black body temperature below 220 K. Combined with the ECMWF wind data, the influences of vertical wind shear(VWS) on the azimuthal distribution of flashes were also analyzed, showing that strong VWS produced downshear left asymmetry of lightning activity in the inner core and downshear right asymmetry in the rainbands.     

AN ANALYSIS OF DISTRIBUTION AND MESOSCALE STRUCTURE OF PRECIPITATION ABOUT LANDFALL TROPICAL CYCLONE KOPPU (0915)

Observation from automatic weather stations, radars and TRMM satellites are employed to investigate the precipitation distribution of tropical cyclone (TC) Koppu (0915) that made landfall on Guangdong province in 2009. The results show that the precipitation of landfall TC Koppu is featured by significant asymmetry and mesoscale structure, and occurs mainly to the left of its moving path. By examining the sea surface temperature (SST), water vapor flux, Q vector, vertical wind shear of environment etc., it is found out that the distribution of SST, water vapor convergence, low-level convective ascending and vertical wind shear facilitates the TC precipitation to take place to the left of the TC moving path. The mesoscale structure separated by Barnes band-pass filter presents that the precipitation of landfall KOPPU has some organized mesoscale spiral structures, which is around the TC center and composed of the form of belts or blocks. The heavy local rainfall of landfall TC Koppu is primarily associated with the rainfall due to mesoscale spiral structure.     

基于气候系统模式FGOALS-g2的热带气旋活动及其影响的动力降尺度模拟

热带气旋是气候模拟关注的重要对象,但是,由于当前的气候系统模式分辨率较低,难以合理再现热带气旋分布特征,因此,动力降尺度就成为一种有效的手段。本文使用区域气候模式RegCM3,对中国科学院大气物理研究所气候系统模式FGOALS-g2的模拟结果进行动力降尺度,基于热带气旋路径追踪法,从热带气旋的路径、强度和降水三个方面,检验了动力降尺度在热带气旋模拟能力上的增值。结果表明,动力降尺度结果大幅提升了热带气旋路径频率的模拟,较之全球模式,其与观测的路径频率分布的空间相关系数从0.57提升至0.74;区域模式模拟的热带气旋强度与观测更为一致,全球模式难以模拟40 m s?1以上风速的热带气旋,区域模式能够模拟风速为60 m s?1的热带气旋;在热带气旋降水方面,降尺度后的热带气旋降水贡献率和平均热带气旋降水强度均有所改善,在西北太平洋区域较之全球模式,区域模式将热带气旋降水贡献率和降水强度提高了10%和4.7 mm d?1。动力降尺度后TC（tropical cyclone）的模拟技巧得到提升的区域为西北太平洋区域,但在中国南海区域,技巧提升的不显著甚至有所下降。关于动力降尺度结果在西北太平洋区域的技巧提升,分析表明能够更好体现CISK（Conditional Instability of the Second Kind）机制是主要原因,区域模式模拟的水汽增多、正涡度增强、上升运动增强而垂直风切变减弱都有显著贡献。     

“4·11”海南致灾雷暴大风环境场与多普勒雷达回波特征分析

利用海口多普勒雷达、海南省区域加密自动站和常规资料对2016年4月11日凌晨发生在海南岛北部近海和陆地的大范围雷暴大风过程进行天气学分析。结果表明:（1）这次雷暴大风过程发生在500 hPa槽前、低空急流左前侧、低层切变线南侧、高空急流分流区下方和地面静止锋南侧的有利于对流发展的较大范围上升气流区域内;（2）对流风暴移动路径上的大气环境具有中等程度的条件不稳定、对流有效位能CAPE以及上干冷下暖湿的温-湿廓线垂直结构、强的深层垂直风切变,对流风暴形成后最终组织发展产生雷暴大风、大冰雹和短时强降水的多单体带状回波和弓形回波;（3）在多单体带状回波中镶嵌的风暴A和B各自发展成为具有中层径向辐合特征的超级单体,风暴B和C合并形成弓形回波,其中风暴C的中气旋加强成为弓形回波北部的气旋式中尺度涡旋;（4）阵风锋对对流风暴的正反馈作用、对流风暴前侧强劲的暖湿入流与风暴后侧径向风速相当的冷池出流,长时间倾斜依存的自组织结构及其与强的低层环境风垂直切变的相互作用,是多单体风暴和弓形回波长时间维持和加强的主要原因;（5）地面原来存在的β中尺度辐合切变线,对流风暴主体回波沿着海南岛北部近海东移等因素,有利于多单体带状回波和弓形回波的长时间维持。      

Insight into the Role of Lower-Layer Vertical Wind Shear in Tropical Cyclone Intensification over the Western North Pacific

Vertical wind shear fundamentally influences changes in tropical cyclone (TC) intensity. The effects of vertical wind shear on tropical cyclogenesis and evolution in the western North Pacific basin are not well understood. We present a new statistical study of all named TCs in this region during the period 2000-2006 using a second-generation partial least squares (PLS) regression technique. The results show that the lower-layer (between 850 hPa and 10 m above the sea surface) wind shear is more important than the commonly analyzed deep-layer shear (between 200 and 850 hPa) for changes in TC intensity during the TC intensification period. This relationship is particularly strong for westerly low-level shear. Downdrafts induced by the lower-layer shear bring low θ e air into the boundary layer from above, significantly reducing values of θ e in the TC inflow layer and weakening the TC. Large values of deep-layer shear over the ocean to the east of the Philippine Islands inhibit TC formation, while large values of lower-layer shear over the central and western North Pacific inhibit TC intensification. The critical value of deep-layer shear for TC formation is approximately 10 ms-1 , and the critical value of lower-layer shear for TC intensification is approximately ±1.5 ms-1 .     

Statistical and Comparative Analysis of Tropical Cyclone Activity over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (1977–2018)

A statistical comparative analysis of tropical cyclone activity over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal (BoB) has been conducted using best-track data and wind radii information from 1977 to 2018 issued by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center. Results have shown that the annual variation in the frequency and duration of tropical cyclones has a significant increasing trend over the Arabian Sea and an insignificant decreasing trend over the BoB. The monthly frequency of tropical cyclones in both the Arabian Sea and the BoB shows a notable bimodal character, with peaks occurring in May and October–November, respectively. The maximum frequency of tropical cyclones occurs in the second peak as a result of the higher moisture content at mid-levels in the autumn. However, the largest proportion of strong cyclones (H1–H5 grades) occurs in the first peak as a result of the higher sea surface temperatures in early summer. Tropical cyclones in the Arabian Sea break out later during the first peak and activity ends earlier during the second peak, in contrast with those in the over BoB. This is related to the onset and drawback times of the southwest monsoon in the two basins. Tropical cyclones in the Arabian Sea are mainly generated in the eastern basin, whereas in the BoB the genesis locations have a meridional (zonal) distribution in May–June (October–November) as a result of the seasonal movement of the low-level positive vorticity belt. The Arabian Sea is dominated by western and northwestern tropical cyclones by that track west and NW, accounting for about 74.6%, whereas the tropical cyclones with a NE track account for only 25.4%. The proportions of the three types of tracks are similar in the BoB, with each accounting for about 33% of the tropical cyclones. The mean intensity and size of tropical cyclones over the Arabian Sea are stronger and larger, respectively, than those over the BoB and the size of tropical cyclones over the North Indian Ocean in early summer is larger than that in autumn. The asymmetrical structure of tropical cyclones over North Indian Ocean is affected by the topography and the longest radius of the 34 kt surface wind often lies in the eastern quadrant of the tropical cyclone circulation in both sea areas. FAN Xiao-ting (樊晓婷), LI Ying (李 英), et al.     

对强台风“纳沙”（1117）登陆海南岛前后降水非对称性的分析

利用NCEP 1 °×1 °再分析资料和卫星资料,以2011年强台风“纳沙”为例,分析了“纳沙”登陆海南岛前后的降水特征,并分析了“纳沙”周围TBB、湿度、水平风速和垂直速度在其路径两侧分布的不对称性,并从空间结构的分布上讨论了降水分布的可能成因。结果表明:登陆海南岛前后,“纳沙”的降水在其路径两侧的分布呈显著的不对称性,强降水主要集中在其路径左侧。“纳沙”除温度距平的分布较对称外,其它物理量在台风周围的空间结构均表现为显著的不对称性:（1）TBB,在路径左侧的强对流云系的强度和范围均比右侧大;（2）湿度,路径左侧的湿区范围比路径右侧大;（3）水平风速,台风位于海上和登陆时,路径右侧的最大风速比左侧强,台风登陆时其左右两侧最大风速相差20 m/s;在登陆前和登陆后路径右侧的相等大风速区范围比左侧大;（4）垂直速度,路径左侧的上升运动比右侧强,尤其在台风登陆时左侧的垂直上升速度比右侧大-2.4 Pa/s。通过对比上述物理量的非对称分布与降水分布可知,湿度可能是台风降水非对称分布的原因之一,而垂直速度可能是造成“纳沙”非对称降水的主要原因。另外,从垂直风切变作用进一步探究台风降水非对称性的形成机制,结果发现“纳沙”登陆前后的强降水均集中在顺切变方向及其左侧。垂直风切变可较好地解释路径左侧的强垂直上升运动和强降水区。此外海南岛的地形条件也导致“纳沙”在登陆期间海南岛西部的降水显著增加。      

ANALYSIS OF TROPICAL CYCLONE PRECIPITATION FOR DIFFERENT INTENSITY CLASS IN NORTHWEST PACIFIC WITH TRMM DATA

Combined with TRMM products and Tropical Cyclone (TC) best track data in Northwest Pacific from 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2009, a total of 118 TCs, including 336 instantaneous TC precipitation observations are established as the TRMM TC database, and the database is stratified into four intensity classes according to the standard of TC intensity adopted by China Meteorological Administration (CMA): Severe Tropical Storm (STS), Typhoon (TY), Severe Typhoon (STY) and Super Typhoon (SuperTY). For each TC snapshot, the mean rainfall distribution is computed using 10-km annuli from the TC center to a 300-km radius, then the axisymmetric component of TC rainfall is represented by the radial distribution of the azimuthal mean rain rate; the mean rain rates, rain types occurrence and contribution proportion are computed for each TC intensity class; and the mean quadrantal distribution of rain rates along TCs motion is analyzed. The result shows that: (1) TCs mean rain rates increase with their intensity classes, and their radial distributions show single-peak characteristic gradually, and furthermore, the characteristics of rain rates occurrence and contribution proportion change from dual-peak to single-peak distribution, with the peak rain rate at about 5.0 mm/h; (2) Stratiform rain dominate the rain type in the analysis zone, while convective rain mainly occurred in the eye-wall region; (3) The values of mean rain rate in each quadrant along TCs motion are close to each other, relatively, the value in the right-rear quadrant is the smallest one.     

A western North Pacific tropical cyclone intensity prediction scheme

A western North Pacific tropical cyclone (TC) intensity prediction scheme (WIPS) is developed based on TC samples from 1996 to 2002 using the stepwise regression technique, with the western North Pacific divided into three sub-regions: the region near the coast of East China (ECR), the South China Sea region (SCR), and the far oceanic region (FOR). Only the TCs with maximum sustained surface wind speed greater than 17.2 m s⁻¹ are used in the scheme. Potential predictors include the climatology and persistence factors, synoptic environmental conditions, potential intensity of a TC and proximity of a TC to land. Variances explained by the selected predictors suggest that the potential intensity of a TC and the proximity of a TC to land are significant in almost all the forecast equations. Other important predictors include vertical wind shear in ECR, 500-hPa geopotential height anomaly at the TC center, zonal component of TC translation speed in SCR, intensity change of TC 12 or 24 h prior to initial time, and the longitude of TC center in FOR.     

华东登陆热带气旋降水不同分布的对比分析

利用CMORPH降水资料，将热带气旋（TC）登陆后的降水分为路径左侧降水（L型）和右侧降水（R型）两类，并针对登陆华东地区TC的 L型和R型降水的大气环流场、环境水平风垂直切变以及台风环流内的动热力条件进行对比分析，结果表明:2005～2014年间登陆华东地区的20例TC中包括12例L型和8例R型。总体来看，大气环流因子对于登陆华东TC降水分布起主要作用。L型降水TC高层南亚高压主要呈纬向带状分布，在登陆过程中路径左侧维持偏东风高空辐散气流，中层西风槽偏东，西太平洋副热带高压（简称副高）偏南，环境水平风垂直切变指向西南。R型降水TC高层南亚高压断裂，呈经向分布。TC路径左侧风场较均匀，右侧东南风高空辐散气流明显。副高的位置偏北呈块状，同时环境水平风垂直切变指向东北，有利于路径右侧降水。台风环流内，低层冷暖平流输送以及水汽辐合与降水落区也有较好对应关系。L型TC低层暖平流的输送使TC西南象限低层增暖，大气稳定度降低。同时水汽辐合区也主要位于西南象限，有利于TC路径左侧降水。而R型TC副高位置偏北可将南侧的东南暖湿气流向台风环流更西部输送，东北象限维持暖平流，有利于路径右侧降水发生。     

A Statistical Analysis on the E ect of Vertical Wind Shear on Tropical Cyclone Development

Using tropical cyclone (TC) best track and intensity of the western North Pacific data from the Joint TyphoonWarning Center (JTWC) of the United States and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data for the period of 1992-2002, the effects of vertical wind shear on TC intensity are examined. The samples were limited to the westward or northwestward moving TCs between 5°N and 20°N in order to minimize thermodynamic effects. It is found that the effect of vertical wind shear between 200 and 500 hPa on TC intensity change is larger than that of the shear between 500 and 850 hPa, while similar to that of the shear between 200 and 850 hPa. Vertical wind shear may have a threshold value, which tends to decrease as TC intensifies. As the intensifying rate of TC weakens, the average shear increases. The large shear has the obvious trend of inhibiting TC development. The average shear of TC which can develop into typhoon (tropical depression or tropical storm) is below 7 m s-1 (above 8 m s-1).     

Effects of vertical wind shear on convective development during a landfall of severe tropical storm Bilis (2006)

Effects of vertical wind shear on convective development during the landfall of tropical storm Bilis (2006) are investigated with a pair of sensitivity experiments using a two-dimensional cloud-resolving model. The validated simulation data from Wang et al. [Wang, D., Li, X., Tao, W.-K., Liu, Y., Zhou, H., 2009: Torrential rainfall processes associated with a landfall of severe tropical storm Bilis (2006): A two-dimensional cloud-resolving modeling study. Atmos. Res., 91, 94–104.] are used as the control experiment. The difference between the control and sensitivity experiments is that vertically varying zonal winds in the control experiment are replaced by their mass-weighted means in the sensitivity experiment. The imposed vertical velocity with ascending motion in the upper troposphere and descending motion in the lower troposphere is responsible for dominant stratiform rainfall on 15 July. The vertical wind shear does not have important impacts on development of stratiform rainfall. One day later, imposed upward motion extends to the lower troposphere. The inclusion of negative vertical wind shear produces well-organized convection and strong convective rainfall because it causes kinetic energy transfer from large-scale forcing to perturbation circulations.     

两类不同风灾个例超级单体特征对比分析

采用分钟级加密自动气象站观测资料,盐城、淮安和岳阳、荆州雷达探测数据,以及欧洲中期天气预报中心（ECMWF）高分辨率的ERA-Interim全球再分析数据,对比分析了2016年6月23日江苏阜宁龙卷灾害和2015年6月1日湖北监利下击暴流大风灾害的环境特征与超级单体的结构特征。结果表明:（1）两次强对流大风灾害发生在相似的低空环流背景下:风灾发生在低空急流出口区左侧的暖区内、850 hPa低涡中心东侧6—7个经距的位置;环境大气的对流有效位能大于2000 J/kg。但是风灾的类型不同,江苏阜宁大风灾害主要由超级单体龙卷造成,监利“东方之星”沉船事故主要是超级单体触发的下击暴流造成。短时强降水中心与风灾中心的相对位置不同:阜宁龙卷移动方向的左侧伴随着最强短时降水;湖北监利沉船事件发生期间,风灾中心与短时强降水中心基本重合。鉴于不同性质的对流大风位置与超级单体母体的中心位置对应关系上存在差异,通过比较地面观测的瞬时大风与瞬时强降水中心的相对位置将有助于区分强对流大风的性质。（2）环境风垂直切变强度对对流风暴结构、发展、维持有重要影响:阜宁龙卷发生时,其上空0—6 km风垂直切变达4×10-3 s-1,超级单体有明显的向前倾斜结构,形成有界弱回波区;而监利强对流沉船位置0—6 km风垂直切变只有2.3×10-3 s-1左右,风暴单体中的上升气流近乎于垂直。阜宁超级单体中气旋,首先出现在0—1.5 km风垂直切变和0—3 km风暴相对螺旋度带状大值区,在向抬升凝结高度更低的环境移动过程中,其底部不断下降,形成龙卷;而在监利沉船区,中低层风切变和风暴相对螺旋度相对要弱得多,对应风暴单体中的中气旋强度、持续性较弱,中气旋底部高度维持在1.6 km左右。（3）环境湿度垂直结构特征不同可能是风暴单体形成不同类型灾害大风的重要环境因子。监利下击暴流造成的风灾发生时,在地面气温迅速下降过程中,气压变化呈现快速跳升又快速下降的“尖锥”形,气压峰值比降水峰值提前4 min出现。它与对流层中高层环境大气中较为深厚的干空气卷入对流风暴中造成水物质强烈蒸发、冷却过程有关。而阜宁风灾过程中,环境大气中层仅存在非常浅薄的干层,加之低层较为深厚的饱和大气环境,对应的地面冷池效应相对较弱。