Innovative thermal technique for enhancing the performance of prefabricated vertical drain during the preloading process

This paper examines the effect of raising the temperature of soft Bangkok clay, up to 90 °C, on the performance of the prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) during the preloading process. The effect of temperature on the engineering behavior of soft Bangkok clay was first investigated using a modified triaxial test apparatus and flexible wall permeameter which can handle temperatures up to 100 °C. The results of the triaxial tests on clay specimens demonstrate that raising the soil temperature increases its shear strength, under drained heating condition, as well as its hydraulic conductivity. In addition, large oedometer tests were performed to investigate the performance of PVD at elevated temperatures. The response of the soil sample with PVD for the thermal consolidation path which involved increasing the soil temperature at constant vertical effective stress condition and the thermo-mechanical path which involved increasing simultaneously both the soil temperature and the vertical effective stress were investigated. The consequent results indicated that the thermo-mechanical path shows promising results regarding the consolidation rate. For both reconstituted and undisturbed specimens, higher consolidation rate was observed for the soil specimen with PVD loaded under elevated temperature. This behavior can be attributed to the increase in the soil hydraulic conductivity as the soil temperature increases. Therefore, raising the soil temperature during the preloading period can enhance the performance of the PVD, particularly, by reducing the drainage retardation effects due to the smear zone around PVD.     

考虑板土相互作用的排水板通水特性试验研究

为研究排水板在实际工况下的通水特性,研制排水板纵向通水量测试新仪器,采用室内真空预压模型试验、堆载预压模型试验和直接充灌淤泥等方法来制作板土单元体(试样),并开展板土单元体(试样)通水能力测试。试验结果表明:无论是直接充灌淤泥法、堆载预压法还是真空预压法,高性能排水板通水量均大于现行规程试验结果,而普通排水板通水量均小于现行规程试验结果,现行规程方法高估了真空预压后普通排水板的通水能力。对比结果表明:高性能排水板在堆载预压后通水能力与真空预压后通水能力接近,而普通排水板在堆载预压后通水能力明显高于真空预压后通水能力。因此,对于变形大且固结时间长的新近吹填淤泥地基加固工程应优先选用高性能排水板。     

海南海花岛软基处理工程中真空预压法的改进与机理分析

疏浚淤泥这种超软土地基目前主要采用排水固结法进行加固,然而,工程实践发现,淤堵是一个重要的问题,新型防淤堵材料和施工工艺是研究的热点。依托恒大海南海花岛真空预压处理工程,引入一种应用于超软土地基处理的新型防淤堵真空预压法。该方法是直排式真空预压方法的进一步改进,将防淤堵排水板取代传统排水板,在连接方式上,将无孔钢丝软管取代了水平波纹管,也将传统的包扎捆绑改进成了三通密封接头,枪钉固定。结合施工动态监测和加固后检测,表明了该方法的加固效果和实用性。在此基础上,结合已有的室内模型试验研究,阐述其抽真空过程中在排水板附近防淤堵的原理和改善机制。     

真空预压处理填埋污泥的固结解析解

真空预压法是一种行之有效的填埋污泥原位加固方法。在考虑真空预压的时间效应条件下,基于椭圆柱等效模型推导了真空预压联合塑料排水板的固结解析解。利用实际监测数据,拟合得出了预压时间效应参数。通过对比研究,分析了传统的圆柱形等效模型与椭圆柱等效模型的差异及预压时间效应参数对固结发展的影响。进一步,将根据解析解计算出的沉降曲线与实测沉降值比较,验证了解答的合理性与实用性。表明,在考虑塑料排水板的"形状效应"时,椭圆柱体等效模型的效果最佳,且基于各周长等效模型的计算结果与椭圆柱等效模型结果较为接近;预压时间效应参数的值越大代表真空预压施加得越快,对应的土体固结发展越快。     

Laboratory tests of electro-osmotic consolidation combined with vacuum preloading on kaolinite using electrokinetic geosynthetics

Laboratory tests were conducted on kaolinite to investigate the effectiveness of electro-osmotic consolidation combined with vacuum preloading using electrokinetic geosynthetics (EKG). The results showed that the combined method could remove more water and induce larger surface ground settlements compared with the traditional vacuum preloading or electro-osmotic consolidation. Vacuum preloading was quite effective during the first 4?h, though the electro-osmotic consolidation took a main role in dewatering process after 9?h. The combined method could also hinder the development of cracks, induce higher negative pore water pressure and hence increase the efficiency of electro-osmotic consolidation. The results showed that deep electro-osmotic consolidation technique combined with vacuum preloading could result in significant water removal efficiency along with shorter electrode length. Furthermore, both electro-osmotic consolidation and the combined method could consolidate the soil efficiently with low energy consumption.     

Experimental investigation on electro-osmotic treatment combined with vacuum preloading for marine clay

An electro-osmotic consolidation (EO) combined with vacuum preloading (VP) was investigated on marine clay using laboratory tests. To improve consolidation efficiency and reduce the settlement difference, a new prefabricated device was designed to combine EO and VP for the tests. The results indicated that the vacuum preloading with intermittent electro-osmotic consolidation (VP–I-ECM) provided more water discharge with higher discharge rate and produced larger soil settlement compared to traditional vacuum preloading and electro-osmotic consolidation. For the combined method, the VP effectively removed water from the soil for the first 12 h, and its efficiency decreased with the time. After 12 h, the intermittent EO was used to further consolidate the soil and maintain a high level of drainage rate. Test results also showed that the combined method of VP-I-ECM significantly improved the shear strength and bearing capacity of the marine clay to satisfy the construction requirements with a significant reduction in the anode erosion and the energy consumption. This research study provides useful information for the design guide and practical application of the combined technique for improving marine clay.     

Analytical solutions to the axisymmetric consolidation of a multi-layer soil system under surcharge combined with vacuum preloading

Surcharge combined with vacuum preloading is a common technique for accelerating the consolidation process in ground improvement. A unit cell model for the axisymmetric consolidation of a soft soil using a prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) under a surcharge, combined with vacuum preloading, is investigated in this study. Based on this model, analytical solutions for a multi-layer soil system are put forward and the explicit expressions for two-layer and one-layer systems are presented. The accuracy of the proposed solution is verified using an analytical solution available in the literature. In the parametric study, the influencing factors on the consolidation process, such as, the smear zone, the PVD spacing, the hydraulic conductivity in the radial direction, the coefficient of vacuum decrease, are taken into account. The water flow in the radial direction plays an important role in the consolidation process while the impact of the vertical flow mainly develops around the interfaces between two adjacent layers. In addition, the proposed analytical solution is applied in a case history with three different layers and the results are reasonable.     

Effects of pressurizing timing on air booster vacuum consolidation of dredged slurry

Air booster vacuum preloading is a newly improved method applied in land reclamation projects. Highly pressurized air can provide an additional pressure difference between the prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) and injection point, thereby increasing the hydraulic gradient and generating small fractures that can improve the soil permeability and the transmission efficiency of the vacuum pressure. However, with a premature activation time, the pressurized air can create air channels connected to the PVD, which may drastically decrease the vacuum pressure. With a delayed activation time, the strength of the dredged clay may be too high to permit fractures, thus limiting the permeability improvement. In this study, soils with degrees of consolidation (DOCs) of 0%, 40%, 60%, and 80% were selected for testing the efficacy of initial booster activation times in four tests. The results show that the pressurizing groups were more effective in improving the consolidation of soils, and the best effect of the use of air booster is obtained when soil has been consolidated to a DOC of 60%. The lower soils of the pressurized groups showed greater increase rates than those demonstrated by conventional vacuum preloading.     

排水板真空度损耗的排水固结解析解

无砂真空预压吹填软土在国内造地工程中广泛应用,但实践表明传统固结解析解已不足以预测其加固性状和加固效果。从固结方程出发,在原有的等应变假设基础上,在定解条件中增加了吹填土特有的高度欠固结特性和无砂真空预压特别明显的真空度损耗,重新推导得到径向和竖向完全协调的新的等应变解析解——JJJ解答,以解决无砂真空预压吹填软土的排水固结设计理论问题。JJJ法作为固结方程的原生解答,兼容以往所有该类解析解的同时,增加了针对高度欠固结土类和排水板真空度损耗严重的排水固结问题的解决能力。经现场和试验验证,JJJ解析解可相当精确预测无砂真空预压吹填软土的复杂固结过程和加固土体超孔压分布和孔压消散分布,该解答同时也适用于堆载和真空预压的工况。     

真空预压下土体有效应力增量的计算与应用

通过降低孔隙水压力,真空预压可增加土体中的有效应力,从而使地基发生排水固结以达到最终被加固体的目的。根据有效应力原理,通过对真空度转化为土中有效应力增量的过程和机制分析,考虑地下水位的影响,推导土中不同深度上有效应力增量的计算方法,并根据建立的理论公式分析真空预压的有效加固深度与加固体效果。研究结果表明,膜下真空度越大,地下水位埋深越浅,真空混合流体密度越小,则抽真空预压在土体中形成的有效应力增量越大,地基被加固的效果也越明显。最后,结合澳门国际机场软基加固工程实例进行分析,理论分析得到的结论符合实际观测结果。     

Deformation characteristics of soil between prefabricated vertical drains under vacuum preloading

The deformation characteristics of soil among prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) subjected to vacuum pressure are investigated using a model test conducted on dredged slurry. Red iron particles are used to indirectly indicate the lateral displacement of soil under vacuum preloading. Test results showed that, in addition to the settlement of soil between two PVDs, there was also lateral displacement that varied with consolidation time and lateral distance from the PVD because of lateral vacuum suction. The lateral displacement arose successively with the increasing lateral distance. And it increased from zero on the PVD surface and dropped back to zero again at the midpoint between the two PVDs. There should have been a maximum value of the lateral displacement at a point near the PVD. The combined vertical and lateral displacement formed a soil pile around the PVD and showed a ‘V’ shaped soil surface.     

Experimental study on the clogging effect of dredged fill surrounding the PVD under vacuum preloading

Clogging effect surrounding prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) is a typical problem when vacuum preloading is applied to a dredged fill foundation. A large-scale model test was designed to clarify the cause and mechanism of the clogging effect, and the basic physical and mechanical parameters of the soil in the clogging zone were tracked during the test. The results demonstrated that a clogging zone was formed around the PVD in the early stage of improvement with conventional vacuum preloading, and the boundary of the clogging zone was approximately 0.2–0.4 of the boundary radius. The clogging zone surrounding the PVD was formed because of the overall movement of the soil toward the PVD under the high vacuum pressure gradient, rather than fine particle migration. The soil in the clogging zone exhibited permeability anisotropy and equivalent ‘smear’ effect. The permeability ratio (k_h/k_v) was less than 1, and the ratio of horizontal permeability coefficients at the test distances of 45 cm and 10 cm were 9.6 at a depth of 20 cm and 8.9 at a depth of 80 cm. An analysis of the microstructure of the soil in the clogging zone demonstrated that the clay particles tended to be vertically oriented. The re-orientation of the clay particles reduced the horizontal permeability coefficient and led to the permeability anisotropy of the soil in the clogging zone. Thus, decrease in the horizontal permeability coefficient and equivalent ‘smear’ effect of the soil in the clogging zone affect the consolidation of dredged fill, which leads to the clogging effect. The permeability anisotropy also slightly affects consolidation.     

真空预压法加固软基三维有限元计算

为预测广州南沙港区某真空预压加固工程的效果与影响范围,针对真空预压加固大面积软基的变形特点,提出将单井涂抹效应对涂抹区内土体渗透性的弱化作用转化为减小单井影响区内土体水平向渗透系数的方法,既可减少三维有限元计算的前处理工作量,又可考虑砂井地基的涂抹效应,讨论了网格尺寸对固结度的影响。并视土体为多孔介质,采用比奥固结理论,结合依托工程,建立了较大规模的三维模型并进行有限元计算分析,计算结果与现场监测数据吻合得较好。     

Measured and predicted performance of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) with and without vacuum preloading

This paper presents the effectiveness of vacuum preloading in accelerating the consolidation of PVD improved soft Bangkok clay by comparing with the corresponding results without vacuum preloading. Laboratory tests were conducted using a large scale consolidometer having diameter of 300 mm and height of 500 mm with reconstituted specimens installed with prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) with and without vacuum preloading. In addition, field data were collected from Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA) site improved by PVD with and without vacuum pressures. Analyses were carried out to compare the compressibility parameters (C_h and k_h/k_s) by back-calculation of laboratory and field settlements using Hansbo (1979) method. From the laboratory tests, the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (C_h) values from reconstituted specimens were 1.08 and 1.87 m²/yr for PVD without and with vacuum pressure, respectively and the k_h/k_s values were 2.7 for PVD only and 2.5 for vacuum-PVD. After the improvement, the water contents of the soft clay were reduced, thereby, increasing its undrained shear strengths. Similarly, the field data analysis based on the back-calculated results showed that the k_h/k_s were 7.2 and 6.6 for PVD without and with vacuum, respectively. The C_h values increased slightly from 2.17 m²/yr for PVD only to 3.51 m²/yr for vacuum-PVD. The time to reach 90% degree of consolidation for soils with vacuum-PVD was one-third shorter than that for soils with PVD only because of higher C_h values. Thus, the addition of vacuum pressure leads to increase horizontal coefficient of consolidation which shortened the time of preloading. The PVDCON software was found to be useful to predict the settlements of the PVD improved ground with and without vacuum preloading.     

软土地基真空预压加固的有限元分析

以平面应变比对固结理论为基础,通过比较前人研究成果,选择考虑竖向排水体涂抹效应的砂井地基等效计算方法,根据真空预压加固软土地基的机理,运用有限元分析,提出一种真空预压计算方法。由于真空预压过程中地下水头将降低,因此在计算中采取降低地下水头的方式等效模拟地基表面施加的的真空度。结合工程实例给出算例,对该方法的可靠性进行研究。通过将计算结果同实测资料进行对比,验证了该方法的准确性。     

Comparative analysis on performance of vertical drain improved clay deposit under vacuum or surcharge loading

This paper presents two well-instrumented large-scale field tests of PVD-improved soft soil with vacuum and surcharge preloading, respectively. The two large-scale field tests were conducted adjacent to each other with the same preload. A comparative analysis was performed to investigate the performance of subsoil (i.e., the ground settlement, the layered settlement, the lateral displacement of subsoil and pore water pressure) under vacuum preloading and equivalent surcharge preloading. Some design methods were verified based on the field data. Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) and Vane Shear Tests (VST) were conducted to assess the improvement effects on subsoil after preloading. The results showed that as compared with surcharge preloading, vacuum preloading mitigated the differential settlement of the ground. The vacuum pressure transmitted into the soil with a minor loss through the PVD length. From a practical point of view, the improvement effects by vacuum preloading and surcharge preloading were similar in terms of influence depth and soil strength based on the in-situ tests.     

软土地基孔隙水压力降低引起的压缩分析

根据土力学基本原理,分析孔隙水压力降低引起的土体压缩方式,并对真空预压地基的分层沉降现场实测值和理论计算值进行分析;同时,定量分析真空预压地基在不同深处单位压缩量。研究结果表明:(1)若按有效应力原理水土压力分开计算、地基土体中孔隙水压力降低时,土体竖向总应力维持不变而侧向总应力减小;(2)土体中孔隙水压力在相对压强小于0的范围内降低时,将引起土体等向压缩,在相对压强大于0的范围内降低时,将引起土体单向压缩;(3)南沙港区的真空预压地基若其沉降按欠固结计算时,计算值与实测值接近,自重应力欠固结引起的沉降是抽真空期间地基总沉降主要部分;(4)真空预压的加固深度随排水体深度增加而增大,土层压密效果随地层深度增加而减弱,故降低孔隙水压力法在加固软土地基中,设计排水体深度时应考虑最佳加固深度。     

真空预压法的机理分析

从讨论固结概念出发,得出真空预压法的实质。它是以降低边界上(砂垫层和砂井视为加固体的边界的一部分)u值为途径,从而形成边界与土体间u(势)分布不平衡而引起固结的。当边界具有排水条件时,在总应力基本不变的条件下,u值的降低必然导致有效应力σ＇的增加。仅当σ＇增加时,才能使土体固结。从u(势)分布的不平衡直到新的平衡之全过程即为真空预压加固过程。这是一种相对提高与发挥自重有效应力的加固方法。通过试验与理论分析说明,它与堆载预压法相比在固结产生的途径、固结过程中的特征、应力路径及砂井作用等方面有差异;而相同点则是两者的固结都来源于u(势)分布的不平衡且都满足于固结微分方程。同时,论证了渗流和固结并非因果关系以及它与降水预压的相似处及其差异;然后,提出了适用于施加外荷与直接降低边界u值两情况下的固结模型;最后,对几种固结情况进行了有效应力分析。     

Full-Scale Embankment Consolidation Test using Prefabricated Vertical Thermal Drains

In this study the field feasibility of an innovative thermal technique to improve the performance of prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) used in conjunction with the preloading ground improvement method is investigated. For this purpose, two identical 6.0 m high full-scale test embankments for preloading were constructed over the soft Bangkok clay where a conventional PVD system was installed underneath one embankment and a novel prefabricated vertical thermo-drain (PVTD) system was utilized for the other. The PVTD unit consists of a U-tube made of cross-linked polyethylene plastic (PEX) that is attached to a conventional PVD unit. Preheated water at about 90°C is circulated through the attached U-tube to raise the soil temperature underneath the PVTD embankment. The behavior of the two test embankments were compared in terms of excess pore water pressure and consolidation results. The comparison shows the advantage of a PVTD system over a conventional PVD system. The rate of consolidation increases significantly in the PVTD system due to the temperature effect on the hydraulic conductivity. Moreover, the embankment with the PVTD system generates more settlement due to the thermally induced irreversible contraction of saturated normally consolidated soft Bangkok clay.     

Experimental study on a dredged fill ground improved by a two-stage vacuum preloading method

The vacuum preloading method has been wisely chosen among many ground-improvement methods considering the time limit of many projects and the characteristics of reclaimed soil. However, the loss in vacuum with soil depth, the clogging around prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), and the deteriorative consolidation of the deep soil layer, among other factors, create a large challenge to vacuum preloading for dredged marine clay fill. Thus, this study proposes a two-stage vacuum preloading method and focuses on its feasibility and effectiveness. Contrasting laboratory tests are performed in two identical experimental tanks with dredged marine clay fill from the Wenzhou land reclamation site in China. In one tank, the one-stage vacuum preloading method is used to serve as a baseline for this study. In the other tank, use of the two-stage vacuum preloading method is proposed for consolidation; it comprises two stages. In the first stage, the dredged marine clay fill is conditioned by vacuum preloading using half of the PVDs, where the dissipation of the excess pore water pressure tends to be steady. In the second stage, vacuum preloading is activated using all the PVDs. The results show that a better consolidation effect is achieved with the proposed method in terms of the settlement, vacuum pressure, pore water pressure, water content, vane shear strength, and soil particle microstructure after soil consolidation.