Effect of plant population densities and application of growth retardants on cottonseed yield and quality

In field trials at Giza in 1986–1987, cotton cv. Giza 75 was sown at 166,000, 222,000 and 333,000 plants/ha and given foliar applications of 0, 250, 500 and 750 ppm Cycocel (chlormequat) or Alar (daminozide). As plant density increased, there was a decrease in cottonseed yield/ha, seed index, seed protein content, oil and protein yields/ha, oil refractive index, iodine value, unsaponifiable matter and unsaturated fatty acids (myristoleic, oleic and linoleic). In contrast, as plant density increased, there was an increase in oil acid value, saponification value and saturated fatty acids (caprylic, capric, lauric, tridecylic, myristic, palmitic and stearic). Application of Cycocel or Alar increased cottonseed yield/ha, seed index, seed protein content and oil and protein yield/ha, oil refractive index, iodine value, unsaponifiable matter and unsaturated fatty acids. However, there was a decrease in oil acid value and saponification value. There were no differences among application rates of either chemical on cottonseed yield/ha. The highest oil and protein yield/ha was observed with Cycocel applied at 750 ppm, followed by Alar at 250 ppm. Applying Cycocel at 250 ppm gave the highest oil refractive index and unsaponifiable matter, and the lowest acid value. Application of Alar at 250 ppm gave the highest oil iodine value and the lowest saponification value, and also at 250 or 500 ppm gave the highest oil unsaturated fatty acid composition. Interaction was positive between plant density, Cycocel and Alar and affected cottonseed yield/ha. The 166,000 plants/ha and application of Cycocel at 750 and Alar at 250 ppm are recommended for the improvement of cottonseed yield and quality.     

Soybean seed protein and oil contents and fatty acid composition adjustments by drought and temperature

Environmental stress during soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] seed fill can alter the chemical composition of the seed and reduce yield, viability, and vigor. The effect of drought and high air temperature (AT) on soybean seed protein and oil contents have not been reported. The objective of this study was to characterize the protein and oil contents and fatty acid composition of soybean seeds after exposure to drought and high AT during seed fill. Experiments were conducted during two years, in which three drought-stress levels were maintained throughout seed fill. In Experiment I, “Gnome” soybeans were grown at daytime AT of 20 and 26°C, and in Experiment II “Hodgson 78” were grown at 27, 29, 33, and 35°C. Across experiments, severe drought increased protein content by 4.4 percentage points, while oil content decreased by 2.9 percentage points. As drought stress increased, measured by accumulating stress degree days, protein content increased linearly and oil content decreased linearly at each AT. Seeds from plants exposed to 35°C during seed fill contained 4.0 percentage points more protein and 2.6 percentage points less oil than those exposed to 29°C when averaged across drought stress levels. Drought had little effect on the fatty acid composition of the oil, but high AT reduced the proportion of the polyunsaturated components.     

Cottonseed,protein and oil yields and oil properties as affected by nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization and growth regulators

Two experiments were carried out at our research center during the 1981 and 1982 seasons on cotton cultivar Giza 75 (Gossypium barbadense L.) to investigate the influence of nitrogen fertilization rates (72, 144 or 216 kg/ha.), phosphorus levels (36 or 72 kg P₂O₅/ha.) and three growth regulators (IAA, IBA or NAA) applied to cotton plants at 10 ppm and sprayed three times (70, 85 and 100 days after sowing) on protein and oil yields, and oil properties. A randomized complete block design with four replications treatment combinations was used. The combined analysis of the results of the two seasons revealed that yields of cottonseed, oil and protein increased by raising nitrogen and phosphorus levels and under the application of growth regulators. Seed index increased by raising the added nitrogen and the applied growth regulants. No detectable effect of phosphorus levels was observed. The seed oil percentage decreased, although the protein percentage increased, when the nitrogen application rate was raised. Application of growth regulators and a high phosphorus level increased the seed oil percentage, but the seed protein percentage was not affected. The seed oil properties, i.e., acidity, saponification and iodine values, tended to decrease slightly by increasing the nitrogen application rate and the application of growth substances, but the trend reversed when the phosphorus level was raised. The mean values of oil specific gravity and refractive index did not show any definite responses.     

Estimating soybean seed protein and oil concentration before harvest

Temperature and precipitation during the growing season have been shown to influence the protein and oil composition of the soybean [Glycine max L. Merr.] seed. A method based on these parameters was developed to estimate protein and oil concentrations of the seed before harvest. This method was developed with protein and oil data and temperature and precipitation data from the Uniform Soybean Tests, Southern Region, for the years 1975 to 1983. Classification and regression “tree-based” analyses were used to determine the month and numeric value (“splitting point”) of the environmental variable that correctly classified the variation from median protein and oil composition for the 126 location-years. Temperature in September was most influential in determining the splitting point for three of the four variables. Oil concentrations from the location-years were separated into low vs. high median-based boundary categories most readily by the September sum of minimum temperatures. Total protein and oil concentrations from the location-years were classified best by September growing degree days. Protein-to-oil ratios were best separated by the September mean minimum temperature. The August mean maximum temperature best separated protein concentration. These data demonstrate that temperature during specific months of the crop year were useful in estimating the final concentration of protein and oil in the seed and could be used by seed processors to estimate seed composition before harvest.     

A method to estimate soybean seed protein and oil concentration before harvest

Temperature and precipitation variables during linear seed fill are known to be environmental determinants of protein and oil composition of the soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] seed. However, the contribution of other precipitation and temperature events during the growing season and a method that would determine the precipitation and temperature variables most related to protein and oil concentration values of the seed has not been fully explored. The former was evaluated by comparing monthly temperature and precipitation variables of the growing seasons to protein and oil data for the years 1959 to 1996 from three locations listed in the Uniform Soybean Tests, Northern Region. The data set comprised locations from Maturity Groups II and III and consisted of 186 location-years. Classification and regression “tree-based” analysis were conducted to determine the month, environmental variable, and “splitting” points that correctly classified most of the 186 location-years for below-vs.-above-median protein or oil composition. The protein concentrations from the location-years were separated into these two median-boundary categories most readily by temperature variables from the months of April and August. The oil concentrations from the location-years were classified best by August and September temperature variables and precipitation in May and September. The sum of protein and oil concentrations from the location-years were best separated by August and July temperature variables and precipitation in May and July. The protein-to-oil ratios from the location-years were best separated by September precipitation and July and June temperature variables. These data demonstrate that tree-based models can use monthly temperature and precipitation variables during linear seed fill and other specific months of the crop year and relate them to the final protein and oil concentration in the seed. These results could be used by the processing industry to estimate seed composition before harvest.     

Extraction and methanolysis of oil from whole or crushed rapeseed for fatty acid analysis

Three methods are described for extraction of oil from rapeseed for routine determinations of fatty acid composition. In the “whole-seed method,” ca. 50% of the total seed oil is extracted, without prior crushing of the seeds, by soaking the dried seeds in petroleum ether and benzene at room temperature for 2 days. For certain types of rapeseed with a “less permeable seed coat,” a presoaking in water is required to rupture the seed coat. The extracted oil has practically the same fatty acid composition as the total seed oil, and can therefore be used as a representative sample for determination of the fatty acid composition of the total seed oil. In the “crushing method,” the seeds are lightly crushed before the oil is extracted. In the “half-seed method,” the outer cotyledon of a single seed is dissected from the embryo; the oil is extracted from this cotyledon for fatty acid analysis, while the remaining part of the embryo can be germinated and planted to produce the progeny of the seed. In all three methods the extracted oil is converted to fatty acid methyl esters by a rapid reaction with sodium in methanol at room temperature. Presented in part at the Joint Conference of the Chemical Institute of Canada and the American Chemical Society, Toronto, May 1970. Contribution No. 329, Department of Plant Science, University of Manitoba.     

Adsorption isotherms of squash (Cucurbita moschata) seed oil on activated carbon

With vegetal carbon as adsorbent (5% w/w), the effects of temperature (30°C and 50°C), concentration of H₂O (0% and 25%) and adsorption time (0 hr, 1 hr, 2 hr, 3 hr) on the chemical characteristics of unrefinedCucurbita moschata seed oil were studied in a batch adsorption system by using a “split-plot” experimental design. With the exception of the iodine value, the chemical properties of the oil (saponification and peroxide value, carotenoid, and free fatty acids concentration) were affected significantly by interactions among the adsorption time, temperature and concentration of H₂O in the adsorption system. The results suggest that the physicochemical characteristics of the oil, and therefore its functional properties, may be modified and controlled by the conditions utilized during the adsorption process.     

Fatty acid composition of oil from adapted,elite corn breeding materials

The fatty acid composition of corn oil can be altered to meet consumer demands for “healthful” fats (i.e., lower saturates and higher monounsaturates). To this end, a survey of 418 corn hybrids and 98 corn inbreds grown in Iowa was done to determine the fatty acid composition of readily-available, adapted, elite corn breeding materials. These materials are those used in commercial hybrid production. Eighty-seven hybrids grown in France (18 of which also were grown in lowa) were analyzed to determine environmental influence on fatty acid content. The parents of the hybrids and the inbreds were classified in one of four heterotic groups: Lancaster, Stiff Stalk, non-Lancaster/non-Stiff Stalk, and Other.t-Tests and correlation analyses were performed with statistical significance accepted at a level ofP≤0.05. The findings showed a wide range of fatty acid profiles present in adapted, elite corn breeding materials with ranges for each fatty acid as follows: palmitic acid, 6.7–16.5%; palmitoleic acid, 0.0–1.2%; stearic acid, 0.7–6.6%; oleic acid, 16.2–43.8%; linoleic acid, 39.5–69.5%; linolenic acid, 0.0–3.1%; and arachidic acid, 0.0–1.0%. Small amounts of myristic acid, margaric acid, and gadoleic acid also were found. Three lines had total saturates of 9.1% or less. Thirty-six of thet-tests involving hybrids showed significant differences among heterotic groups. There were small but significant correlations among protein, starch and oil content and the amounts of several fatty acids. Results from the corn grown in France vs. lowa demonstrated a large environmental effect that overwhelmed the genetic differences among lines. This study shows that for some attributes, a breeding program involving adapted corn breeding materials might produce the desired oil. Other types of oil (such as high-oleic) would have to be produced in a different manner, for example, by a breeding program with exotic breeding materials.     

Serum cholesterol,triglycerides and total lipid fatty acids of rats in response to okra(hibiscus escuientus) seed oil

Tender pods of okra are commonly consumed vegetables in India. Okra seed kernel, like soybean, is a rich source of protein and fat. Its fat, with its appreciable linoleic acid content (>42%), prompted us to look into its metabolic utility in comparison with commonly consumed groundnut oil. Serum lipid profiles, with respect to cholesterol, triglycerides and total lipid fatty acids were determined in rats receiving okra seed oil at a level of 10% in the casein based diet which was adequate with respect to vitamins, minerals, etc. The control group received a casein based diet in which groundnut oil was the source of fat. Serum lipid profiles in this group were similarly monitored. The feeding trial was carried out for a period of 90 days. Results showed that serum cholesterol content of rats receiving okra seed oil was significantly lower compared to those consuming groundnut oil. A decreasing trend in total lipids as well as triglycerides was also evident in animals fed okra seed oil. Serum fatty acid profiles showed a relatively higher proportion of long chain and polyunsaturated fatty acids in this group as compared to the group receiving groundnut oil. These results indicate that okra seed oil consumption has a potential hypocholesterolemic effect. To whom correspondence to be addressed. ¹Part of this work was presented at 45th Annual Meeting of Oil Technologists Association of India, New Delhi-Feb. 9–10, 1990.     

Physical refining of coconut oil: Effect of crude oil quality and deodorization conditions on neutral oil loss

In the present study, neutral oil loss (distillative and mechanical carry-over) during physical refining of coconut oil was quantified. Neutral oil loss seems to depend on both the crude oil quality and the process conditions during deodorization. The distillation of volatile glyceridic components (monoand diglycerides), originally present in the crude oil, was confirmed as the major cause for the neutral oil loss. The amount of these volatile components in crude coconut oils cannot be derived as such from the initial free fatty acid content. A lower deodorization pressure with less sparge steam resulted in a larger neutral oil loss than a higher pressure with more steam. A “deodorizability” test on a laboratory scale under standardized conditions (temperature=230°C, pressure=3 mbar, time=60 min, sparge steam=1%), to evaluate crude oil quality and to obtain a more accurate prediction of the expected neutral oil loss and free fatty acid content in the fatty acid distillate, is described.     

Gaseous ammonia as a refining agent for cottonseed oils

In this investigation the application of gaseous ammonia to cottonseed oil refining was explored. The ammonia reacted quantitatively with the free fatty acids in the oil; its solubility in coftonseed oil was determined as a function of pressure. In “degumming” it was more efficient in removing phosphatides than other agents. A reduction in refining loss resulted for oils refined with gaseous ammonia as outlined and compared with the standard AOCS cup loss analysis. However, the oil colors were substantially higher even though the ammonia treated oils were re-refined with caustic solution. Results using cottonseed oil-hexane “miscellas” containing less than 70% oil showed low refining losses, but the colors were estremely high. Above 70% oil content the losses were higher, but the colors were lower. The colors never equalled “standard cup” results. This study was sponsored by the Texas Engineering Experiment Station and the Cotton Research Committee of Texas.     

13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic analysis of the triacylglycerol composition ofBiota orientalis and carrot seed oil

¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analysis of the whole oil (triacylglycerols) ofBiota orientalis seeds confirms the presence of oleate [18:1(9Z)], linoleate [18:2(9Z, 12Z)], linolenate [18:3((9Z, 12Z, 15Z)], 20:3 (5Z, 11Z, 14Z), 20:4(5Z, 11Z, 14Z, 17Z), and saturated fatty acids in the acyl groups by comparing the observed carbon shifts with previously established shift data for model triacylglycerols. This technique shows that the saturated, 20:3 and 20:4 fatty acids are distributed mainly in the α-acyl positions, whereas oleate, linoleate, and linolenate are randomly acylated to the α- and β-positions of the glycerol “backbone”. Stereospecific hydrolysis of theBiota oil with pancreatic lipase, followed by chromatographic analysis of fatty esters, reveals the presence of trace amounts of 16:0(0.7%), 18:0(0.5%), 20:3 (0.4%), and 20:4 (1.3%) in the β-position of the glycerol “backbone”, which are undetectable by¹³C NMR technique on the whole oil. Semiquantitative assessment of the¹³C NMR signal intensities gives the relative percentages of the fatty acid distribution as: saturated 16:0, 18:0 (12.0% α-acyl), oleate (7.7% α-acyl 8.7% β-acyl), total linoleate and linolenate (31.7% α-acyl; 24.2% βacyl), total 20:3 and 20:4 (15.7% α-acyl). The¹³C NMR spectroscopic analysis of carrot seed oil identifies the presence of saturated (18:0), 18:1(6Z), 18:1(9Z), and 18:2(9Z, 12Z). The saturated fatty acid is found in the α-acyl positions. Semi-quantitative assessment of the signal intensities gives the relative percentages of the fatty acids as: 18:0 (4.5% α-acyl), 18:1(6Z) (49.6% α-acyl; 19.7% β-acyl), oleate (6.5% α-acyl; 8.6% β-acyl) and linoleate (5.2% α-acyl; 6.9% β-acyl).     

Tomato Seed Oil I Fatty Acid Composition,Stability and Hydrogenation of the Oil

Tomato seed oil was investigated to study their components of fatty acids, stability and hydrogenation conditions. The estimation of the fatty acids of tomato seed oil from Ace variety and tomato seed oil extracted from local waste in comparison with cotton seed oil (the most familiar edible oil in Egypt) - Giza 69 variety - extracted by n-hexane and oil obtained by pressing shows that more than 50% of the total fatty acids are linoleic. Palmitic acid was found in a range between 20% to 29% and oleic acid was in a range between 13% to 18%. Other fatty acids like stearic, arachidic, and linolenic acid were less than 3%. The induction periods (at 100°C) for oils of fresh, roasted and stored tomato seeds were found to be 7, 10, and 5 hours respectively. The hydrogenation conditions of crude tomato seed oil were 180°C, 3 kg/cm² and 0.2% nickel catalyst for three hours of hydrogenation to reach a melting point of 50.7°C and an iodine value of 42.     

The isolation and recovery of fatty acids with Δ5 unsaturation from meadowfoam oil by lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis and esterification

This report examines the use of lipases for isolating fatty acids with Δ5 unsaturation from the seed oil ofLimnanthes alba, or meadowfoam. Seven lipase types and three enzyme configurations (immobilized, “free” and reversemicellar encapsulated) were examined. All lipases discriminated against Δ5 acids to varying degrees, but the degree of discrimination was independent of enzyme configuration. Lipase-catalyzed esterification of meadowfoam oil’s free fatty acids was much more successful for isolating Δ5 acyl groups than was lipolysis. For example, esterification directed byChromobacterium viscosum lipase yielded a free fatty acid product containing >95% of the Δ5 acyl groups at >99% purity.     

Chinese melon (Momordica charantia L.) seed: Composition and potential use

Chinese melon (Momordica charantia L.), also known as bitter gourd, is a tropical crop, grown throughout Asian countries for use as food and medicinals. In 1993, four cultivars of Chinese melon were grown in Mississippi and the seeds were collected. Oil contents of the seeds ranged from 41 to 45% and the oils contained 63–68% eleostearic acid and 22–27% stearic acid. Industrially important tung oil, a “fast-drying oil” used in paints and varnishes, contains 90% eleostearic and 2–3% stearic acid. The ratio of stearic to eleostearic in Chinese melon seed oil is ten times greater than that in tung oil. The higher ratio should reduce the rate of drying and crosslinking and could be advantageous in the paint industry. The defatted meals contained 52–61% protein and would be a good source of methionine.     

Alteration of soybean oil composition by plant breeding

Experimental lines selected from the cross PI 90406 × PI 92567 are being used in an attempt to improve soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) oil by altering fatty acid composition through plant breeding. Preliminary evidence shows that the concentration of linolenic acid in soybean oil is reduced by selection for high levels of oleic acid. Levels of poly-unsaturated acids in “high oleic” selections are lower, to various degrees, but the concentration of saturated fatty acids is not different from that of the variety Dare, a representative southern commercial cultivar. In triglyceride from the “high oleic” selection, N70-3436, levels of palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid are 9.5, 2.0, 40.1, 43.3, and 5.1 mol %, respectively. The types of triglyceride structures observed in the experimental lines which were examined also are changed. The combined level of triolein, monooleyl-dilinolein, and dioleyl-mono-linolein in seed from N70-3436 is doubled and constitutes ca. 50% of the oil.     

Wax analysis of vegetable oils using liquid chromatography on a double-adsorbent layer of silica gel and silver nitrate-impregnated silica gel

A chromatographic method is described to measure the crystallizable wax content of crude and refined sunflower oil. It can also be applied to any other vegetable oil. The preparative liquid chromatography step on a glass column containing a silica gel adsorbent superimposed upon a silver nitrate-impregnated silica gel support is used to isolate a wax fraction which is then analyzed by gas chromatography. The recovered wax fraction contains, in addition to the crystallizable waxes, hydrocarbons and other compounds with gas chromatographic retention times corresponding to waxes with chain lengths C₃₄−C₄₂. These compounds are short-chain saturated waxes in fruit oils, such as grapeseed and pomace. In seed oils such as sunflower, soybean or peanut, the compounds initially referred to as “soluble esters” are identified as monounsaturated waxes, esters of long-chain saturated fatty acids, and a monounsaturated alcohol, mainly eicosenoic alcohol. Such waxes are absent from corn or rice bran oils.     

Oil fixation in cottonseed meals

A fraction of the lipid material in cottonseed is fixed in the meal during processing in an oil mill and cannot be extracted with petroleum ether. This relatively unknown and unrecognized “fixed oil” fraction may vary in quantity in different meals. A procedure is described for the quantitative estimation of the fatty acids from this fraction in previously extracted cottonseed meal. Presented at the AOCS Meeting, Minneapolis, 1963.     

Bench-scale processing of amaranth seed for oil

Amaranth seed (Amaranthus hypochondriacus cv. K432) was processed to obtain oil, reported to be a promising source of squalene. The amaranth seed was ground using a stone mill, then separated into oil-rich embryonic tissue (or “bran”) and starchy perisperm. Amaranth bran was much more stable than rice bran when free fatty acid (FFA) content and peroxide value were monitored. Milling at a gap of 0.755 mm did not result in excessive damage to the starch in the perisperm fraction and yielded a bran fraction that contained more than three-fourths of the oil and a starchy fraction consisting of more than two-thirds of the seed weight. The bran particles were too fine for effective bench-scale extraction of the oil. Consequently the bran was extruded into collects prior to extraction. Two extrusion settings were evaluated regarding the rate of moisture injection, while the bran feed rates were constant. There was no significant difference in appearance or size between the two dried collets. Collets were extracted with hexane using an Armfield Extraction/Desolventizing Unit (Model FT 29, Armfield, Ltd., Hampshire, England). Oil recovery averaged 97.7 and 80.0%, respectively. Oil was extracted at high yield from the bran when the bran was extruded into collets. Oil can be obtained as a coproduct of amaranth starch by milling and separating the fractions of amaranth seed. Milling, extrusion, and extraction did not decrease significantly the squalene content in amaranth oil, but increased FFA content and peroxide value and changed tocopherol content of the oil.     

Nutritional and toxicological evaluation ofHibiscus sabdariffa oil andCleome viscosa oil

Mesta seed oil (Hibiscus sabdariffa), like cottonseed oil, contains cyclopropenoid fatty acids (2.9%) and epoxy fatty acids (2.6%) in addition to normal fatty acids found in vegetable oils.Cleome viscosa (Capparidaceae) seed oil is rich in linoleic acid (70%) and free from any abnormal chemical constituents. Nutritional and toxicological evaluations of these two oils were done by multigeneration breeding studies by feeding the respective oils and groundnut oil as control at 10% level in a 20% protein diet with adequate vitamins and minerals. These studies revealed that rats fed mesta oil had inferior growth and reproductive performance and also had altered liver metabolism. Rats fedC. viscosa oil did not show any abnormal growth or reproductive performance or altered liver lipid levels. Thus, these studies indicate that raw or refined mesta oil may not be suitable for human consumption whereasC. viscosa oil can be used safely by humans.