Effects of feeding rate on conversion efficiency and chemical composition of the fish Tilapia mossambica

Average daily rations of 14, 35 or 58 mg Tubifex tubifex worm per gram of the fish Tilapia mossambica Peters represent maintenance, optimum or maximum feeding levels. At these levels, conversion efficiency (K ₁) is 5,9 or 24%. An amount of 65 mg worm/g fish/day, when fed under experimental conditions, is converted with the poorest conversion efficiency (4%). Test individuals fed at 11 to 49 mg worm/g fish/day show a decreasing trend in water content (78.1 to 74.8%), and an increasing trend in fat content (32.1 to 44.2%). Below or above this feeding rate range, water content increases, while fat content decreases. The range of individual variations in fat content is nearly 3 times greater than that of ash and 15 times greater than that of water. Test individuals starved for 60 days lose 2.1 mg dry body weight/g/day. This loss is contributed by calorifically equivalent amounts of fat and protein. The endogenous loss of nitrogen by these individuals averaged 0.18 mg N/g body weight/day.     

Physiological energetics of the intertidal sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima

High-intertidal (H) individuals of the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima (Brandt) are exposed aerially up to 18 h each day, unlike low-intertidal (L) individuals which may be continuously immersed over many days. Thus, H anemones experience shorter feeding periods compared to L anemones. From 1980 to 1982, H and L anemones were observed and collected at the mouth of Bodega Harbor in North Central California (USA) to determine whether any physiological adaptations mitigate the energetic effects of reduced feeding time in H anemones. Weight of prey in coelenterons of H anemones was three times more than that of L anemones following a single immersion period. This difference is not due to slower digestion rates in H anemones. Prey residence time in coelenterons (4h) was equivalent in both groups. Different prey weights imply that ingestion rates were greater in H individuals. However, all anemones had similar weight-specific feeding-surface areas. Different prey-capture rates result from increased receptivity to prey in H anemones, rather than from increases in feeding surface. Absorption efficiency was inversely related to ration size in anemones from both shore positions. H individuals absorbed food more efficiently than L individuals fed equivalent rations. Ration, not exposure conditions, affected absorption efficiency. Daily growth rates were 1.5 to 1.8% and 1.2 to 1.4% of dry body weight in H and L anemones fed large rations (4.0 to 5.6% of dry body weight), respectively. H anemones fed smaller daily rations, approximating amounts of zooplankton captured naturally (1% of anemone dry weight), had higher growth rates and growth efficiencies than L anemones, which lost mass. Higher growth rates in H anemones, which are supported by higher prey-capture rates, result in attainment of minimum body size for reproduction in a relatively short period of time despite reduction in time available for feeding, thus improving relative fitness of these anemones in the upper intertidal zone.     

Feeding habits and food requirements of some amphipods in the Black Sea

Food composition and food requirements of four amphipod species of the Black Sea — Dexamine spinosa (Mont.), Amphithoe vaillanti Lucas, Gammarellus carinatus (Rathke), Gammarus locusta L. — were studied and an attempt made to assess the quantitative composition of the food, daily rhythms of feeding, and daily food rations. The composition of the food of the above-named amphipods is similar and consists primarily of seaweeds. Daily feeding intensity is characterized by a distinct increase during the dark period (D. spinosa, A. vaillanti); however, in G. locusta feeding intensity increases in the morning. The daily food rations of amphipods vary greatly (from 1.7 to 360% of the specimens' body weight), depending upon factors such as the kind of food, age, sex, the physiology of specimens, and the water temperature. The total quantity of food eaten by the populations of these amphipods in the coastal zone of the Black Sea amounts to 4000 g organic matter per square metre within 1 year.     

Modeling the effect of daily ration and feeding frequency on growth of redtail shrimp Penaeus penicillatus (Alock) at controlled temperatures

Obtaining optimal growth of redtail shrimp at an economic production cost is essential. An experiment was conducted to evaluate simultaneous effects of daily ration and feeding frequency on growth of redtail shrimp at controlled temperatures. Two series were operated contemporarily, one at 25°C and the other at 30°C. the three daily rations were 5, 15, and 25% of fresh body weight in association with three levels of daily feeding frequency: one, three, and five times. Each series lasted for 80 days. The growth rate and the combined effects were studied on day 40 and day 80 for each series.Response surface analyses showed that, at 25°C, two quadratic polynomial equations could describe the daily growth rates (G₁ and G₂) during growth periods 1 (day 1-day 40) and 2 (day 41-day 80). The optimal daily ration and feeding frequency in terms of maximum growth rate were found at 25°C to be 22.38% of fresh body weight with three feedings/day for growth period 1 and 22.68% of fresh body weight with three feedings/day for growth period 2.At 30°C, two dynamic models were derived for each growth period that included growth optimums of 21.94% and four feedings/day for the first growth period, and 21.27% and four feedings/day for the subsequent growth period.     

Nitrogen balance in marine fish larvae: influence of developmental stage and prey density

The utilization and fate of nitrogen in larvae of plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), blenny (Blennius pavo) and herring (Clupea harengus), from the stage of first-feeding to metamorphosis, was examined under laboratory conditions. Rates of ammonia excretion, primary amine defaecation, and growth in terms of protein-nitrogen were monitored throughout larval life. Data were used to calculate daily ration, the coefficient of nitrogen utilization (absorption efficiency), and gross and net growth efficiencies. The developmental pattern of nitrogen balance was similar for plaice and blenny larvae. These species showed increasing growth efficiency (k₁: 55 to 80%) with decreasing weight-specific waste nitrogen losses with age. Absorption efficiencies. were high (83 to 98%) in plaice and blenny larvae, and tended to increase with development in the former species. Ration relative to body weight decreased with growth in both species. Herring larval development, although at a slower rate than blenny and plaice, appeared normal up to 33 d, after which high mortality occurred. Absorption efficiency in this species tended to decline (83 to 43%) with age, until metabolic costs exceeded the absorbed ration and growth ceased. Artemia sp. nauplii proved a suitable food source for the rearing of plaice and blenny larvae, but this diet may have long-term toxicity or deficiency effects on herring. Availability and density of food affected nitrogen balance in the larvae of all three species. Feeding stimulated the output of wastes in excretion and defaecation by a factor of up to ten times the 12-h non-feeding basal rates. Waste nitrogen output reached a peak some 2 to 3 h after commencement of feeding and returned slowly to the baseline in 5 to 10 h after cessation of feeding. There was an asymptotic increase in ration, ammonia output and growth of larvae as prey density increased. Ration saturated at a higher prey density (>4 prey ml^-1) than either growth or excretion rate (1 prey ml^-1). Thus the efficiency with which food is absorbed and utilized for growth must eventually decline in response to high prey density. The idea that larval fish are adapted to maximize ingestion and growth rate, rather than optimize growth efficiency and thus to respond to prey occurring in either low density or in occasional patches, is supported by these results.     

Bioenergetics of ephyra larvae of the scyphozoan jellyfish Aurelia aurita in relation to temperature and salinity

The body mass of Aurelia aurita ephyrae was better correlated with the diameter of the central disc than with the distance between opposite rhopaliae or distance between opposite lappet tips. Body dry weight (y, in μg) related to the disc diameter (x, in mm) through the equation y = 22.33 x ^1.99. The exponent 1.99 was significantly lower than that for the medusa stage, indicating a tendency to grow in diameter rather than in weight through the ephyra stage. The average ash-free dry weight (AFDW) of ephyrae was 38.0% of the dry weight. The AFDW/diameter relationship was used to convert measured diameters to body AFDW and calculate succession in body mass, daily ration, daily growth rate and gross growth efficiency. Effects of temperature (6, 9.5, 12, 15 and 18 °C) and salinity (17.5, 22, 26, 30.5 and 35 PSU) on these parameters and feeding were studied at saturated prey concentration (222 Artemia nauplii l⁻¹ initial concentration) by daily measurements over 10 d. There was a strong effect of temperature for total ingestion, growth rate, growth efficiency and final body mass of individual ephyrae, whereas the daily ration was not significantly different between the different temperatures. The experimental group kept at the highest temperature (18 °C) diverged the most, and ephyrae at this temperature ingested 2.7 times more and increased in weight 5.4 times more than at 6 °C. The average daily growth rate and gross growth efficiency of these ephyrae were 34.5% and 25.1%, respectively, significantly higher than at 6, 9.5 and 15 °C. Significant effects of salinity were shown for total ingestion, daily ration, daily growth rate and final weight, although only total ingestion and daily ration diverged sufficiently to show effects in a post-hoc test. This test showed that total ingestion was significantly different for all salinities except between 22 and 35 PSU and between 17.5 and 26 PSU. The daily ration for 35 PSU diverged from all other salinities, whereas none of the other salinities showed any significant differences. Thus, provided food in excess A. aurita can double its weight every 2 to 4 d, dependent on temperature and can therefore develop to the medusa stage in short time. Differences in environmental salinity in the range 17.5 to 35 PSU have little or no effect on growth rate and growth efficiency, whereas our results indicate that the full seawater salinity (35 PSU) causes significantly higher ingestion rate compared to lower salinities. Received: 11 January 1999 / Accepted: 11 May 1999     

The energetics and evolution of intraspecific predation (egg cannibalism) in the anchovy Engraulis capensis

Anchovy feeding activity (based on samples collected around the South African coast between 1986 and 1988) seems to peak twice daily, with the major peak between 17:00 and 19:00 hrs. Mean daily consumption in the field was estimated at 3.45% of body wt d^-1. Since the various food types available to anchovy differ in their caloric values, this figure might be expected to vary according to the type of diet available to the fish. To obtain a diet energetically equivalent to that measured in the field anchovy feeding exclusively on phytoplankton would need to consume the equivalent of 5.8% of their body wt d^-1 and those feeding on zooplankton 3.5 to 4.5% of the body wt, while fish feeding on their own eggs would require only 2.5% of their body wt daily. Feeding on eggs at peak spawning on the spawning grounds —where there is limited alternative food (i.e., zooplankton) available — seems adequate to support reproduction. In selection at the population level, cannibalistic fish benefit from homeostatic self-regulation.     

Ethologie alimentaire d'invertébrés benthiques filtreurs (ascidies). I. Dispositif expérimental. Taux de filtration et de digestion chez Phallusia mammillata

In a study on ascidian feeding ethology, rates of filtration and digestion of the unicellular algae Monchrysis lutheri by Phallusia mammillata (Cuvier, 1815) have been determined experimentally. All results were obtained under constant conditions of temperature, salinity, pH, light, and food, using 5 individuals in 9 experiments of 24 h each. The method of Winter (1969) has been modified by using an automatic system which enables constant food concentrations (±5%) to be maintained. Controls are made by a fluorometer. The rate of filtration is deduced from the quantity of culture food added each hour; this rate varies; a well defined rhythm is not observed, but alternating maxima and minima. The values obtained for, specimens of medium size (10 to 12 cm) vary from 3856 to 4730 ml/h and per gramme organic dry weight, the average being 4380 ml. The quantity of food actually converted by each ascidian, once it has passed the alimentary canal, is calculated from the amount of proteins present in food and faeces. Digestion rate varies from 4.65 to 5.75 mg of albumin equivalent/24 h and per gramme organic dry weight (mean 5.30 mg). The percentage food conversion (filtrated amount=100%) is high: 86 to 93%, with a mean of 90%.     

Grazing and ingestion rates of nauplii,copepodids and adults of the marine planktonic copepod Calanus helgolandicus

The average grazing and ingestion rates of all stages of the marine planktonic copepod Calanus helgolandicus (Calanoida) from nauplius stage IV to adults were measured experimentally at 15°C in agitated cultures. The chain-forming diatom Lauderia borealis and the unarmoured dinoflagellate Gymnodinium splendens were offered as food. The food concentrations were close to natural conditions and ranged from 36 to 101 g of organic carbon per liter. The medium body weights expressed in g of organic carbon of almost all larval stages raised at 49 g C/1 were identical with the weight of the same stages caught in the Pacific Ocean off La Jolla, California, USA. In a log-log system, grazing and ingestion rates increased almost linearly with increasing body weight. Grazing rates ranged from 4 to 21 ml/day/nauplius stage IV to 286 ml to 773 ml/day/female. Ingestion rates increased from 0.2 g to 0.8 g C/day/nauplius stage IV to 18 g to 69 g C/day/female. Grazing and ingestion rates per unit body weight decreased gradually with increasing body weight. The daily ingested amount of food decreased from 292 to 481% of the body weight (g C) of nauplius stage V to 28–85% of the body weight of adult females. Grazing and ingestion performances of all stages increased with increasing particle size. Grazing rates decreased and ingestion rates increased with increasing food concentrations. The published data on food intake of the different age groups of C. helgolandicus show that the young stages of herbivorous planktonic copepods can play a major part in the consumption of phytoplankton in the sea due to their high grazing and ingestion rates.     

Laboratory and field estimates of the rate of faecal pellet production by Antarctic krill,Euphausia superba

The time course of faecal pellet production (egestion) was monitored in January 1985 for a population of Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba Dana, maintained in flowing seawater aquaria at Palmer Station, Antarctica. Following transfer to filtered seawater, krill produced faecal strings for roughly 40 min, after which time faecal egestion virtually ceased. Similar results were obtained for freshly-trawled krill at sea in February and March 1985. There were wide daily variations in total faecal egestion rate; mean rates varied from 0.54 to 1.66 mg dry wt h^-1 and individual rates from 0.25 to 2.35 mg h^-1 (all data corrected to a standard krill of 600 mg fresh weight). Despite these wide fluctuations in total faecal egestion, the loss of organic matter showed no significant daily variation, with a mean value of 0.13 mgh^-1. The relationship between faecal egestion rate and faecal organic content suggested that feeding rate was governed by food quality; when inorganic load was high, feeding rate increased to ensure sufficient energy intake. The data suggest that superfluous feeding does not occur in krill and that values of gut-clearance time calculated from time intervals greater than about 40 min will not be representative of previous feeding history. the rates of faecal egestion observed in this study indicate that the flux of faecal pellets from krill is substantial. They imply an energy intake in E. superba of 17 to 28% body weight per day, much higher than estimated previously for this species by summing known energy losses, but similar to estimates for other euphausiids.     

Feeding and predator-avoidance by the rose anemone Urticina piscivora

We investigated the influence of feeding rate on the behavior of the rose anemone Urticina piscivora. We predicted that anemones would travel less and be less willing to detach from the substrate in response to contact with a predator (Dermasterias imbricata) as feeding rate was experimentally increased. As predicted, anemones receiving 0 mussels (Mytilustrossulus) daily moved significantly more than those receiving either 1 or 2 mussels daily. Anemones receiving 0 mussels daily also detached significantly quicker in response to predator contact compared to the 1 mussel per day group, which in turn detached significantly quicker than did the 2 mussels per day group. A field test of the same prediction gave mixed results. We also examined whether anemones could detect feeding rates of neighbors. Movement rates of anemones receiving 1 mussel daily when neighbors received 0 mussels daily were compared with those when neighbors received 2 mussels daily. We predicted that if the subjects could detect feeding rates of neighbors, they should move less when neighbors received less food than themselves (since their position is relatively good) than when neighbors received more food. The results support this interpretation. Received: 21 August 1996 / Accepted: 22 October 1996     

Growth,food utilization and effect of social interaction in the European bass Dicentrarchus labrax

Fingerling and juvenile bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L.) fed on filleted saithe, Gadus virens, exhibited much higher K ₁ energy and nitrogen utilization efficiencies (growth as % energy or nitrogen intake) than those fed on trout pellets or shore crabs, Carcinus maenas, although the efficiency declined during prolonged feeding. Mean organic absorption efficiency for saithe was 99.5% and was independent of food intake but the efficiency for pellets and crab declined with increasing food intake from 99 to 92%. For each diet the regression of relative growth rate on food intake was linear up to the regression of relative growth rate on food intake was linear up to the highest feeding level and independent of body weight, enabling construction of a simple model for food transformation. The regression coefficient (equivalent to K ₃, the ratio of growth to food consumed in excess of maintenance) for saithe was about 3 times that for pellets in terms of energy and twice that for pellets in terms of nitrogen. The more efficient utilization of saithe for growth and of pellets for maintenance were related to differences in their nutritional value. With each diet, K ₃ and maximum K ₁ for energy were about twice those for nitrogen. Social interaction had a significant effect on food utilization in juvenile bass. Isolated fish showed poor growth and mean K ₁ efficiency in comparison with bass in pairs or groups. K ₃ efficiency and mainternance requirement were similar in individuals and groups, but were significantly greater in pairs. These results are related to behavioural observeations and environmental stress, and the limitations of extrapolating the results of laboratory feeding experiments on fish to other situations is discussed.     

Intake and coversion of food in the fish Limanda limanda exposed to different temperatures

In the flat fish Limanda limanda L., feeding rate and conversion efficiency were studied as functions of body weight, sex, temperature and food quality. When offered herring meat at 13 °C (series I), females (live weights 1 to 150 g) consume more food than males; the magnitude of this difference is body weight-dependent. With increasing wieght, both females and males consume less food per unit body weight per day. Variations in daily ration are considerable; the range of deviation from mean feeding rate is about 60% for males and 40% for females. The range of deviation does not vary significantly among females and males of different body weights. At the same temperature level (13 °C; series II), females consume almost the same, or even less, cod meat than males. Among individuals of series I and II, there is a little difference in the feeding rate; however, herring-fed individuals obtain about 2 times more energy than cod-fed individuals. Each gram wet weight of herring meat yields 2001, each gram cod meat 1137, calories. Small individuals completely cease to feed at 3°C; they feed little at 8 °C. Larger females consume maximum amounts at 8 °C. Small individuals consume maximum amounts at higher temperatures. Thus, with increasing body weight (age), the temperature for maximum feeding shifts downwards. Feeding with cod or herring meat results in considerable changes in composition and calorific content of L. Limanda. The magnitude of these changes depends both on temperature and food quality. Food conversion efficiency values of herring-fed individuals are about 1 1/2 times higher than of cod-fed individuals. In series I and II, females are more efficient converters than males. In individuals weighing more than 50 g, conversion efficiency decreases in the order: 8°, 13°, 18° C; in smaller individuals this order is 13°, 18°, 8 °C. Conversion rate is about 2 to 5 times faster in individuals fed herring meat than those receiving cod meat. Conversion rate decreases in the order 13°, 8°, 18 °C in males, and in the order 18°, 13°, 8 °C in females; females of more than 80 g are exceptional in that they reach the maximum at 8 °C. From the data on food intake and food conversion, the biologically useful energy available for metabolism has been calculated for each test individual kept at 13° and 18 °C. At these temperature levels, the weight exponents are about 0.6; the a value or metabolic level for the 18 °C series is about 2 times higher than that at 13 °C. Thus, temperature affects metabolic rate but not the exponential value. The exponential value for the body weight-metabolism relation at 13 °C is for dab fed herring meat 0.9; the a value amounts to about half that for dab fed cod meat. Food quality, unlike temperature, alters not only the exponential value but also metabolic rate.     

Feeding of laboratory-reared larvae of the sea bream Archosargus rhomboidalis (Sparidae)

Feeding by larvae of the sea bream Archosargus rhomboidalis (Linnaeus) was investigated from late September, 1972 to early May, 1973 using laboratory-reared larvae. Fertilized eggs were collected from plankton tows in Biscayne Bay, and the larvae were reared on zooplankton also collected in plankton nets. Techniques were developed to estimate feeding rate, food selection, gross growth efficiency, and daily ration. Daily estimates of these were obtained through 16 days after hatching at rearing temperatures of 23°, 26°, and 29°C. Feeding rate increased exponentially as the larvae grew, and increased as temperature was raised. At 23°C larvae began feeding on Day 3, at 26° and 29°C larvae began feeding on Day 2. Feeding rates at initiation of feeding and on Day 16 were, respectively: 23°C, 7.16 food organisms per larva per hour (flh) and 53.78 flh; 26°C, 7.90 flh and 168.80 flh; 29°C, 17.62 flh and 142.07 flh. Sea bream larvae selected food organisms by size. At initiation of feeding they selected organisms less than 100 m in width. As larvae grew they selected larger organisms and rejected smaller ones. The major food (more than85% of the organisms ingested) was copepod nauplii, copepodites, and copepod adults. Minor food items were barnacle nauplii, tintinnids, invertebrate eggs, and polychaete larvae. Mean values for gross growth efficiency of sea bream larvae ranged from 30.6% at 23°C to 23.9% at 29°C. Mean values for daily ration, expressed as a percentage of larval weight, ranged from 84% at 23°C to 151% at 29°C and tended to decline as the larvae grew.This paper is a contribution from the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA     

Ontogeny of the digestive capacity of Senegalese sole (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Solea senegalensis</Emphasis>), with respect to digestion,absorption and metabolism of amino acids from<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Artemia</Emphasis>

Ontogenetic changes in the capacity of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis Kaup, 1858) larvae to digest and metabolise Artemia protein and amino acids (AA) were studied using 12, 22 and 35 days after hatching (DAH) larvae that were fed Artemia metanauplii radiolabelled with a [U-¹⁴C] protein hydrolysate. About 82% and 18% of the label was incorporated into the Artemia trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitate (mostly protein) and soluble (mainly free AA) fractions, respectively. The digestibility of Artemia was high at all tested ages, with label absorption varying between 77% and 83% at 24 h after feeding (HAF). A rapid digestion, absorption and catabolism of Artemia AA were noted, with most of the absorption into the body occurring during the first 3 HAF. Traces of label were already found in the metabolic-CO₂ trap at 1 HAF. Furthermore, label was largely and almost immediately incorporated into the TCA precipitate fraction (mostly protein) of gut and body tissues. Slight differences were noted in diet utilization between larvae at different ages. At 12 DAH larvae had a lower catabolism and evacuation of the label, as well as the highest accumulation in the gut. However, except for the amount of catabolised label, the results were not significantly different from those for 35 DAH larvae. Moreover, no significant differences were found in the amount of label incorporated into the body, although it seemed to be higher in 12 DAH larvae. Taken together, these results reveal a higher absorption and a significantly higher retention of the absorbed label in 12 DAH larvae. In addition, 12 DAH larvae appeared to have a slower absorption of the label, which, in continuously feeding larvae, might result in overall lower food absorption efficiency. Therefore, it seems that young larvae have the ability to compensate for a possible lower digestive capacity with higher body retention of absorbed AA. This study confirms that sole larvae, even young stages, have a high capacity for digesting live preys.Communicated by O. Kinne, Oldendorf/Luhe     

Biologie d'un copépode des mares temporaires du littoral méditerranéen français: Eurytemora velox

The feeding activity of Eurytemora velox, a brackish copepod from temporary lakes of the south of France, was studied in 1978–1979 using various foods (natural particles, monospecific algal cultures, and artificial food) under different conditions of temperature and salinity. Experiments with Amphidinium sp. or Tetraselmis maculata as food showed that the ingestion rate increased with food concentration according to an asymptotic or a linear relationship. Although of slightly smaller size, T. maculata was ingested at a higher rate than Amphidinium sp. Large maximum daily rations (up to 150% of body carbon with Amphidinium sp. and up to 250% with T. maculata) were attained. These values, which greatly exceed those generally obtained with marine copepods, could result from adaptation of the feeding processes of this copepod to its very rich trophic environment. A significant correlation was demonstrated between ingestion rate and fecal pellet production using T. maculata as food. Therefore, daily fecal production was used as an index of feeding activity in experiments carried out with natural food, T. maculata cultures and artifical food (Tetramin). Increased temperature generally resulted in an activation of grazing and filtration rates and of fecal production at low temperatures (10° to 15°C), but a strong decrease was observed over 22°C. Differences of 10 S over or under the natural salinity level led to a decrease in fecal production, suggesting unachieved acclimatization to salinity variation due to a too short acclimation period before the experiments. Fecal pellet production was higher during the day than during the night. It depended also on the quality of food used: high values were obtained with T. maculata, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Rhodomonas sp. and Chlamydomonas sp., low values with Chlorella sp. and Amphidinium sp., and medium values with natural food material. The assimilation rate (A) was calculated by Conover's methods. A significant negative correlation was obtained between A and the ash content of the food. High assimilation rates were attained with chlorophycean algae, while natural particulate food produced variable assimilation rates, depending on the amount of inorganic material present.

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Biologie d'un copépode des mares temporaires du littoral méditerranéen français: Eurytemora velox

     

Experimental evaluation of the energy balance in Octopus vulgaris, fed ad libitum on a high-lipid diet

A complete energy balance equation was estimated for the common octopus Octopus vulgaris at a constant temperature of 20°C, fed ad libitum on anchovy fillet (Engraulis encrasicolus). Energy used for growth and respiration or lost with faeces and excreted ammonia was estimated, along with total energy consumption through food, for six specimens of O. vulgaris (with masses between 114 and 662 g). The energy balance equation was estimated for the specimens at 10-day intervals. During each 10-day interval, food consumed, body mass increase and quantity of faeces voided were measured. The calorific values of octopus flesh, anchovy flesh and faeces were measured by bomb calorimetry. Oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion rates were monitored for each specimen during three 24-h experiments and daily oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion were estimated. It was found that 58% of the energy consumed was used for respiration. The amount of energy invested in somatic and gonadal growth represented 26% of the total energy budget. The energy discarded through faeces was 13% of consumed energy. The estimated assimilation efficiency (AE) values of O. vulgaris feeding on anchovy (80.9–90.7%) were lower than the AE values estimated for other cephalopod species with different diets of lower lipid content such as crabs or mussels. Specific growth rates (SGR) ranged 0.43–0.95 and were similar to those reported for other high-lipid diets (bogue, sardine) and lower than SGR values found for low-lipid, high-protein diets (squid, crab, natural diet). Ammonia excretion peak (6 h after feeding) followed the one of oxygen consumption (1 h after feeding). The values of atomic oxygen-to-nitrogen (O:N) ratio indicated a protein-dominated metabolism for O. vulgaris.     

Parental care and the cost of reproduction in a Mediterranean fish

Summary Symphodus tinca is a common near-shore Mediterranean labrid fish in which females may sometimes spawn their eggs over hundreds of square meters, or alternatively spawn into well-defined algal nests. Eggs spawned in either manner are fertilized, but widely scattered eggs receive no parental care, whereas eggs spawned into nests are usually guarded by the male until they hatch. Here, I report weight changes of individual marked fish that engaged in a variety of different reproductive behaviors during three breeding seasons. Males gained weight at 0.15% per day outside the spawning season, and added 29–78% to their overall body weight between reproductive seasons, even following substantive weight losses in a spawning season (up to 20% among nesting males). Nesting and nest-guarding males lost an average of 0.32% and 0.41% of their body weight per day in 1986 and 1987. This cost is four times greater than reproduction for nonnesting males, which registered a 0.03% daily weight gain. Actively spawning females lost 0.06% of their body weight daily during the spawning season. While long-term growth rates did not appear to be substantially affected by reproduction in either sex or by parental care in males, present work does not exclude the possibility that such long-term effects may exist.     

Stylochus mediterraneus (Turbellaria: Polycladida), predator on the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

The polyclad Stylochus mediterraneus Galleni has been found associated with the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lmk., on which it feeds. Polyclads allowed to feed freely on groups of mussels of different sizes preyed mainly on small mussels <25 mm in length. The predation rate (number of mussels eaten per no. of polyclads per no. of days) ranged between 0.07 and 0.33. The average amount of food ingested by 1 polyclad feeding on mussels 16 to 25 mm or 26 to 35 mm in length was 7.1 and 11.2 (dry weight) mg per day, respectively. Before penetrating the mussels, the worm first straddles the valves at the posterior edge of the shell and then, after having digested the posterior adductor muscle, removes and swallows the soft parts of the prey.     

Über den Einfluß der Nahrungskonzentration und anderer Faktoren auf Filtrierleistung und Nahrungsausnutzung der Muscheln Arctica islandica und Modiolus modiolus

Filtration rates and the extent of phagocytosed food particles were determined in the offshore lamellibranchs Artica islandica and Modiolus modiolus in relation to particle concentration, body size and temperature. Pure cultures of the algae Chlamydomonas sp. and Dunaliella sp. were used as food. A new method for determining filtration rates was developed by modifying the classical indirect method. The concentration of the experimental medium (100%) was kept constant to ±1%. Whenever the bivalves removed algae from the medium, additional algae were added and the filtration rate of the bivalves expressed in terms of percentage amount of algae added per unit time. The concentration of the experimental medium was measured continuously by a flow colorimeter. By keeping the concentration constant, filtration rates could be determined even in relation to different definite concentrations and over long periods of time. The amount of phagocytosed food was measured by employing the biuret-method (algae cells ingested minus algae cells in faeces). Filtration rates vary continuously. As a rule, however, during a period of 24 h, two phases of high food consumption alternate with two phases of low food consumption during which the mussels' activities are almost exclusively occupied by food digestion. Filtration rate and amount of phagocytosed algae increase with increasing body size. Specimens of A. islandica with a body length of 33 to 83 mm filter between 0.7 to 71/h (30–280 mg dry weight of algae/24 h) and phagocytose 21 to 122 mg dry weight of algae during a period of 24 h. The extent of food utilization declines from 75 to 43% with increasing body size. In M. modiolus of 40 to 88 mm body length, the corresponding values of filtration rate and amount of phagocytosed algae range between 0.5 and 2.5 l/h (20–100 mg dry weight of algae) and 17 to 90 mg dry weight of algae, respectively; the percentage of food utilization does not vary much and lies near 87%. Filtration rate and amount of phagocytosed algae follow the allometric equation y=a·x ^b. In this equation, y represents the filtration rate (or the amount of phagocytosed algae), a the specific capacity of a mussel of 1 g soft parts (wet weight), x the wet weight of the bivalves' soft parts, and b the specific form of relationship between body size and filtration rate (or the amount of phagocytosed algae). The values obtained for b lie within a range which indicates that the filtration rate (or the amount of phagocytosed algae) is sometimes more or less proportional to body surface area, sometimes to body weight. Temperature coefficients for the filtration rate are in Arctica islandica Q₁₀ (4°–14°C)=2.05 and Q₁₀ (10°–20°C)=1.23, in Modiolus modiolus Q₁₀ (4°–14°C)=2.33 and Q₁₀ (10°–20°C)=1.63. In A. islandica, temperature coefficients for the amount of phagocytosed algae amount to Q₁₀ (4°–14°C)=2.15 and Q₁₀ (10°–20°C)=1.55, in M. modiolus to Q₁₀ (4°–14°C)=2.54 and Q₁₀ (10°–20°C)=1.92. Upon a temperature decrease from 12° to 4°C, filtration rate and amount of phagocytosed algae are reduced to 50%. At the increasing concentrations of 10×10⁶, 20×10⁶ and 40×10⁶ cells of Chlamydomonas/l offered, filtration rates of both mollusc species decrease at the ratios 3:2:1. At 12°C, pseudofaeces production occurs in both species in a suspension of 40×10⁶, at 20°C in 60×10⁶ cells of Chlamydomonas/l. At 12°C and 10–20×10⁶ cells of Chlamydomonas/l, the maximum amount of algae is phagocytosed. At 40×10⁶ cells/l, the amount of phagocytosed cells is reduced by 26% as a consequence of low filtration rates and intensive production of pseudofaeces. At 20°C and 20–50×10⁶ cells of Chlamydomonas/l, the maximum amount of algae is sieved out and phagocytosed; the concentration of 10×10⁶ cells/l is too low and cannot be compensated for by increased activity of the molluscs. With increasing temperatures, the amount of suspended matter, allowing higher rates of filtration and food utilization, shifts toward higher particle concentrations; but at each temperature a threshold exists, above which increase in particle density is not followed by increase in the amount of particles ingested. Based on theoretical considerations and facts known from literature, 7 different levels of food concentration are distinguishable. Experiments with Chlamydomonas sp. and Dunaliella sp. used as food, reveal the combined influence of particle concentration and particle size on filtration rate. Supplementary experiments with Mytilus edulis resulted in filtration rates similar to those obtained for M. modiolus, whereas, experiments with Cardium edule, Mya arenaria, Mya truncata and Venerupis pullastra revealed low filtration rates. These species, inhabiting waters with high seston contents, seem to be adapted to higher food concentrations, and unable to compensate for low concentrations by higher filtration activities. Adaptation to higher food concentrations makes it possible to ingest large amounts of particles even at low filtration rates. Suspension feeding bivalves are subdivided into four groups on the basis of their different food filtration behaviour.